cours civilisation

Civi GB 30/01/15 1800-1900 An Age of Revolution(s) ? I. The Agricultural Revolution? II. The Industrial Revolution? III. The Political Order: Revolution or Reform? Bibliography: - E.Hobsbaum, Industry and Empire, 1968 - 1789-1848: The Age of Revolutions?, 2001 - E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 1963 Introduction: Britain's changing times. I. The human dimension II. Economic trends III. The political context: an age of unrest. I. the second half of the 18th c. were indeed a stage of transition btw old England with a dominantly rural + agricultural civilization on one hand and on the other hand, the modern world with its indus. Eco and the explosion of urban centers. 1. Population trends a. General figures. 1801: 1st national census. Proposal in 1753, turned down by Parliament for religious and political reasons (enemy knowing). Before 1801 ppl interested in population had to rely on: estimates and parish registers. The most prominent contemporary estimates was taken by G. King in 1688 using the Hearth Tax Return. Increase or decrease of population became a political issue. The parish registers: books in which the parsons (priests) recorded the baptism, marriages and burials which took place in their parishes, that contents were analyzed by John Rickman (officer in charge of the 1st census.) PRA: Parish Registers Abstract. => General figures, constant and accelerated growth: 1760: 6,6% 1770: 7,1% 1780: 7,6% 1790: 8,2% Due to double impact: declining death rate and increasing birth rate. 1760: DR: 26,7% BR: 33,3% 1780: DR: 28,8% BR: 34,4% 1785-95: DR: 25,6% BR: 35,4% 1796-1806: DR: 23,1% BR 34,2% The decline of the DR was mainly due to personal hygiene. The Agricultural revolution meant better food for more people. Industrial made it possible to wear cotton clothes which were easier to wash. Medical science: progress with antiseptics and practice of inoculation and the improvement in midwifery. Although they were progresses, they should not be overrated. The DR goes declining but remains very high because medicine was expensive and reserved mostly to rich people, hospitals were erected in town and only a minority of the population profited of it. Lack of room: 2 or 3 patients per bed regardless to their diseases. Higher marriage rate and greater fertility. Marriage particularly high in industrial urban districts, opportunities to find jobs higher than in the countryside. In 1800: 17-30 age group: 40% married (industrial Lancashire), only 19% in rural Lancashire. Children worked and were employed in mines and factories and were a source of income, more easily accepted. Earlier marriage was also encouraged by the organization of the apprenticeship, from 24 to 21 years old, the living in system declined. b. Geographical distribution. Population was not distributed equally all around the country, the south was more densely populated than the north: question of soil and climate In the last decade of the 18th c. the center of gravity moved to the middle east and the north: new industrial areas. (Lancashire: cotton, Yorkshire: wool, Clydeside: iron and steal). At the same time, the distribution btw town and country was also changing, for most of the 18th c, the vast majority of the population lived mainly in the countryside. In 1801 the proportion was still of 17% only approximately. 20 years oklm bro tmtc. Cotton tree with the colonies WTF? Capital city London maggle, contrast with rich district and poor: LA HOOOOONTE areas high dead J. Rickman 25 per thousand. That pop was of course organized in society Rural VS Urban (c'est l'heure du du-du-dueeeel). 2. The social structure Rural Society Squire: main land owner in the parish, gentry or aristocracy: members of the peredge. Aristocracy average income of 10 000 pounds a year plutôt pas mal. Sat in the House of Lords and occupied key positions in government. The gentry were more modest 500 to 4 000 pounds a year, plutôt nul, could sit in house of commons but against for most of them the kings so instead of sitting in the HC went to justices of the peace (pas pisse). Xoxo gossip girl. Urban Society 3 main groups: -world of trade: small shopkeepers to merchants -professions: included the army, the navy, the church and teachers -entrepreneurs: masters of the new developing industries, a vast class (Duke of Bridgwater => Josiah Wedgewood) The poor In King's estimated represented more than half the population, fell into 3 groups: -laboring poor: soldiers, laborers, domestic servants, earned just enough to live. -Paupers: those who could not earn a living bcs of age or state of health. -Idle poor: vagrants, harshly punished Vagrancy Act 1744. Attitude to the poor was really harsh, 13/02/15 The movement of enclosures is going to be due to the development to sheep farming and also to new techniques to use land that were not usable before. New farming techniques: there were new methods. These improvements were the result of decisions taken by country gentry trying to improve the return of the lands, for instance Jethro Tull (1674-1741) introduced the idea that fallow periods could be reduced. He is credited for having invented the seed-drill (sawed seeds in rows at regular depth in soil to produce as much as possible.) He was one of the forerunners who were able to make people in agriculture that with new farming techniques production could be greatly increased. The use of new crops: use of root crops that was going to change the nature of agriculture. (deeper level than grain crops.) Invented by Sir Richard Weston and developed by Lord Townshend => “Turnip Townshend”. Improved quantity and quality of crops and cattle by selection through cross-breeding, organized and popularized by R. Bakewell (1725-1795), this led to the creation of New Leicester sheep. 1710: oxen (168kg), calves (23kg), sheep (17kg) 1795 oxen (363 kg), calves (69kg), sheep (36kg) Multiplied by 3. this popularized the idea that investing time and money in improving techniques was worthwhile. *Enclosed field system. =>1740's: enclosure = result of general agreement. If not: Act of Parliament (private act) -Petition: demanded by owners of at least 4/5 of the lands. (squire+parson+3 or4 other landowners= -Parliamentary Commission, once set, visited villages, try to settle all dispute, produce the map of each owner new organization of lands and act of P voted, enclosure became compulsory. After 1760's the pace of Parliamentary enclosure increased. Number of P. enclosures: 1751-60: 1561781-90: 281 1761-70: 4241791-1800: 506 1771-80: 6421801-1810: 906 1811: Great Enclosure Act. Common lands: part used by everyone, not private. Led to dispute when became privatized throughout enclosure. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Intro. I. The First Industrial Revolution: COTTON a) A produce of the colonial trade b) Need for greater productivity c) New devices and results II. The Second Industrial Revolution: COAL and STEEL a) Coal b) Iron and steel III. Transports a) Canals b) Roads c) Railways Intro The industrial revolution existed in Britain before the expression was created. People didn't really feel that things had changed dramatically in the organization of industrial production until before the late 1820's and the expression was invented by English and French socialists by analogy of the political revolution in France and it was not until the 1840's that the literature on the social effect on the industrial revolution became wide spread. The industrial revolution did not break out, in fact we consider the British revolution, it means that sometimes in the 1780's the productive power of the British society became capable of a more or less constant and rapid multiplication of goods and services. This is what now technically is known as a “take-off into self-sustained growth”. No previous had been able to break through the sealing which a pre-industrial social structure experimenting periodic break down, famine and death imposed on production. Although it was a take-off it didn't came out of the blue. Some kind of indus revo had started. Yet that indus organization was mostly concentrating on the catering for local needs. From the middle of the 18th century, the process of gathering for the take-off was quite clearly observable. The period of initial industrialization so began with a take-off period of the 1780's and was concluded with the building of the railway and a massive indus. Yet, much of the late 18th century indus expand didn't immediately led to the indus revo that is the creation of a mechanized factory system which produced vast quantities at rapidly diminishing cost, creating its own market. The conditions for the occurrence of the indus revo took first an industry which offered exceptional rewards for manufacturers who could expand the output quickly and a second world market. II. The Second Industrial Revolution: COAL and STEEL a) coal For centuries people in Britain had made do with charcoal. If they needed a cheap and easy to acquire fuel. What existed as industry before the 18th c did use coal but it came from coal mines that were near the surface: 2 types of mines: drift mines and bell pits. They were small scale coal mines, the coal that came from it were very used locally in jouse and local industries. As the country started to industrialized more and more, coal was needed to fuel steam engines and furnaces. The development of factories helped the improvement of steam, further the demand for coal. Coal mines went deeper and deeper. Coal mining became more and more dangerous: risk of flooding, a fire damp, poisoning, collapses. There were also part of Scotland that developed coal mining. 1700: 2.7 million tones 1750: 4,7 million tones 1800: 10 million tonesDevelopment of railways. 1850: 50 million tones These increases went together with the improvement of the working conditions, less expensive to produce. 1842: The Mines Report = shock: people under 5 years of age worked in mines and worked 12h a day. What really made the production of coal explode: development of iron and steel. b) iron and steel Iron and steel are the key to the whole industrial revolution. British iron industry was quite backward compared to Sweden or Germany. Yet, as a result of series of technical improvements Britain would soon become the world first mass producer of iron an iron goods. 2 branches of the iron industry: mining and smelting (hitting the iron ore), concentrated on areas where necessary raw materials can be found quite close. (timber: charcoal, water power) => West Midlands, Sussex, South Wales, district around Sheffield. Work of the metal: cast iron used for canons, cooking, stoves. Wrought iron used for tools, weapons. The main metal-working centers were Birmingham, mostly locks, pins/needles, buttons, nails were produced and Sheffield, reputed for its fine steel cutlery, scissors, files. This has developed even before the industrial revolution and its going to go on. Problem because of British iron compared to Germany. Poor quality (made too much sulfur.) The main inventions were that of a family, the Darby. Abraham Darby I invented the coke-smelting process 1709: produced almost pure carbon which could be produced cheaply and in great quantity, only suitable for cast iron in first. Mostly after 1766's and Onward that mining and smelting were located in food iron and coal areas. A. Darby continued the family business and built the first iron bridge in 1779 across the river Seven. 1750: 30000 tones 1780: 68000 tonesProduction of pig iron 1804: 250000 tones This was accompanied by further inventions for example: 1828: hot blast (inject hot air directly into the furnaces), invented by James Neilson, he made it possible to produce as much quantity of pig iron with less coal. The British Political System Until The Mid 19th c. I/ Origins a) Absolution Great Britain was a kingdom, a monarchy that during the Tudor tended to Royal Absolutism (rule of one man or woman, because of his/her title and his/her belonging to the same dynasty). Powered descended from father to son. This could also be called “Autocracy” form of government where power concentrated in the hands of one person. This was not completely the case for GB because of the Glorious Revolution. b) The Glorious Revolution During 17th c., the Stuart kings often came into conflict with parliament over a number of issues especially to money and religion. They often ruled other without P and decided by themselves through royal proclamation or by dictating terms to P = producing a law during the reign of James II. He was suspected by the P who had become predominantly protestant, to be a hidden roman catholic, through his second marriage and as his second wife became pregnant a fear for P was that the baby would be a boy and brought up in a roman catholic religion. The predominantly protestant P in addition of his antagonism roman catholic king cause at ? On budget question as the king asked for money to fill in the royal treasury than the previous kings. So P decided to reject the king because considered it a domestic crisis, was P decision led by the majority in P which at that time was the Whigs. 1668: “Bills of Rights” signed by the new monarch in 1689: Parliamentary coup (no population involved, no revolution). He was forced off the throne by the opposition of the leading Whigs landowners and church men. He was replaced by William and Mary (James II elder daughter). William was protestant (she was too). Bill of Rights: kind of pact between King&Parliament: it specified what the King could not do without the consent of Parliament. One of the key point in that was that the Key could not levy money without the consent of Parliament. The idea was to replace a monarch decision by a parliamentary decision. William&Mary's reign was quite short. William III (Dutch Calvinist) led Great Britain through wars (costly). Since the 1660's no year was gone by without a meeting of Parliament. 1701: Act of Settlement: P decide on the royal succession. Indeed after Queen Ann death, the Parliament chose a German dynasty starting with the 3 George. The coming of foreign dynasty, served to strengthen the perception that monarchy was only one element in the B political system and not necessarily the most important one. The 3 Georges were chosen by Parliament because they would be powerless. They hardly spoke English. George III frequently used his power and his choice of William Pitt The Younger as Prime Minister proved to be an immense political importance. WPTY can be considered as the first example of the modern day prime minister to a certain extent. He was a very able PM whose policies in the 1780's help to restore National Moral and National Finances after the loss of the American colonies. Pitt controlled P with very few challenges to his authority from 1783 to 1801. He held power not because he headed a major political party but because he was the King's choice. The idea behind that is that the King's choice is still predominant. 1801: Pitt wanted to give more political liberties to roman catholic, GIII was opposed to it and asked Pitt to resigned. And he resigned not because he had lost the confidence of P but because a King required him to go. Nevertheless, during Pitt's period power, more and more power became concentrated in P and by the early 19th c. the independent power of the monarchy was in constant and irreversible decline. II/ Parliamentary power a) House of Lords, House of Commons b) Electoral System III/ Political “Parties” a) Whigs b) Tories - Distinction between boroughs and counties Borough: ?10 proper qualification County: Freehold property: ?2/year Copyhold property: ?10/year Rented property: ?50/year No secret ballot → still forced to vote by landlords → Changes: 56 rotten boroughs disfranchised 51 small boroughs lost 1 MP 22 new 2 members boroughs(created) 20 new single member boroughs (created) 435 000 → 652 000 (only male voters) ~50% increase but 1/7th of total population Ireland x3 pop // Scotland x2 MPs // Scotland Consequences of the Great Reform Act Enfranchisement of the “respectable classes” yet middle class gentlemen could not afford cost of being an MP Split between working and middle classes → “class consciousness” Strong feeling of betrayed ?10 property qualification → demands for further reforms Registration of voters → Creation of modern day parties 1832: Tory Carlton Club and 1836: Whig Reform Club → Conservative and Liberal respectively. The People's Charter Petition Peak Chartist Years: 1838-39; 1841-42; 1848 corresponding with unemployment and poverty = economic depression → disappointment against the Great Reform Bill and also the anger at the Poor Law Amendment Act passed in 1834. The link was quite strong between anti poor law protest and Chartism, made poor relief the less eligible possible. - William Lovett and Thomas Attwood → “moral force chartists” - F. O'Connor → “physical force chartists” 1. Universal male suffrage 2. Secret Ballot 3. No property qualification for election 4. Payment of MPs 5. Equal Parliamentary constituencies (same number of voters, same number of MPs) 6. Annual Elections It was presented to Parliament three times. Rejected in 1839 (235/46), 1842 (287/249), 1848 (222/17) → end of Chartism. The problem was that the lack of support from the middle classes, both parties conservative and liberal were against further reform. 2nd Reform Act: 1867 Conservation 3rd Reform Act: 1884 Liberal Representation of the People Act: 1918 Representation of the People Act: 1928 → universal suffrage A. Conservative Party