aircraft, Japanese

By the beginning of World War II, the Japanese military had developed a variety of advanced aircraft, both land based and carrier based. Like Germany, the Japanese emphasized the development of fighter planes and, in contrast to the British and Americans, devoted little or no attention to heavy bombers. Like Germany, Japan developed no heavy four-engine bomber. The "Betty." The heaviest Japanese bomber— which by Allied standards was at best a medium bomber—was the Mitsubishi G4M, which the Allies (to facilitate identification) code named "Betty." Although this twin-engine aircraft flew from land-based airfields, the Betty was designed in 1937 for the Imperial Navy and made its first flight on October 23, 1939. Performance was exceptional— 276 miles per hour with a range of 3,450 miles—and the Betty was employed against China during 1941 and against Royal Navy ships in Indo- Chinese waters. However, the great vulnerability of the Betty was its lack of armor, especially in critical crew areas and as protection for fuel tanks. As Allied fighter coverage increased during the course of the war, the Betty became an easy target. Its vulnerability was underscored on April 18, 1943, when, acting on decrypts of Japanese messages, U.S. aircraft targeted and shot down the Betty transporting Admiral Yamamoto Isoruku, the Japanese supreme commander in the Pacific. The Betty was powered by two 1360kW Mitsubishi MK4T Kasei 25 engines and had a wingspan of 82 feet. Its top speed was 276 miles per hour with a service ceiling of about 30,000 feet and an impressive range of 3,450 miles. Typical armament consisted of three 7.7-mm manually aimed machine guns in the nose, dorsal, and ventral positions and one 20-mm manually aimed cannon in the tail. The internal bomb load was 2,205 pounds or one 17.7-inch torpedo. The plane was crewed by seven. The Japanese Army Air Force operated three lighter medium bombers, the Mitsubishi Ki-21 (Allied code name "Sally"), the Nakajima Ki-49 Donryu ("Helen"), and the Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu ("Peggy"). Mitsubishi Ki-21 ("Sally"). The Sally was ordered in 1936 and went into service three years later. The aircraft served on all Japanese fronts and was produced in a number of variants, with later models getting the benefit of the extra armor that the Betty lacked. Produced in a quantity of 2,055, the Sally may be considered the most important and certainly the most plentiful of Japan's World War II bombers. Nevertheless, it was obsolete by the beginning of the war. The Sally was powered by two 1,500-horsepower Mitsubishi Ha-101 radial piston engines to a top speed of 302 miles per hour at 15,485 feet. Its service ceiling was 32,810 feet and its range 1,680 miles. The Sally had a wingspan of 73 feet 9 ¾ inches and a fuselage length of 52 feet, 5 7?8 inches. Typical armament consisted of five 7.7-mm Type 89 machine guns in the nose, ventral, tail, port, and starboard beam positions as well as one 12.7-mm Type 1 machine gun in a dorsal turret. Maximum bomb load was 2,205 pounds, and the aircraft was crewed by five. Nakajima Ki-49 Donryu ("Helen"). The Donryu ("Storm Dragon"), code named "Helen" by the Allies, was prototyped in 1939 and was produced in a quantity of 819. Throughout the war, the basic design was subject to several revisions in an effort to improve its overall mediocre performance, but to little avail. By 1944, following the Philippines campaign, the aircraft was generally consigned to kamikaze missions. Specifications for the most numerous Ki-49-IIa variant included a wingspan of 67 feet 1?8 inch and 16 aircraft, Japanese a fuselage length of 54 feet, 1 5?8 inches. Top speed was 306 miles per hour at 16,405 feet, with a service ceiling of 30,510 feet and a range of 1,833 miles. The Ki-49-IIa was armed with one flexible 20-mm cannon in the dorsal position and one flexible 7.7-mm machine gun in the nose, ventral, beam, and tail positions. The Ki-49-IIb and Ki-49- III versions had one flexible 20-mm cannon in the dorsal position; one flexible 12.7-mm machine gun in the nose, ventral, and tail positions; and one flexible 7.7-mm machine gun in the port and starboard beam positions. The Ki-58 was equipped with five flexible 20-mm cannon and three flexible 12.7-mm machine guns. For all versions, a normal maximum bomb load was 1,653 pounds, but the aircraft was loaded with up to 3,527 pounds of bombs for suicide (kamikaze) missions. Except in kamikaze missions, the Helen was crewed by eight. Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryu ("Peggy"). The Hiryu ("Flying Dragon"), or "Peggy," entered service late in the war, in 1944, and was produced in a number of variants in a quantity of 696. Relatively few were encountered in action by the Allies, which was a good thing, since the Peggy was certainly the best of Japan's medium bombers, highly capable of destroying ground targets and of deploying torpedoes against surface ships. Both the Japanese Army Air Force and the Imperial Navy adopted the aircraft, which was not only fast, but exceedingly maneuverable. Its powerplant consisted of two Mitsubishi Ha-104 18-cylinder air-cooled radial engines, rated at 1,900 horsepower for takeoff; later variants used two Mitsubishi Ha-214 18-cylinder air-cooled radials, rated at 2,400 horsepower for takeoff, or two Mitsubishi Ha-104 Ru 18-cylinder turbosupercharged air-cooled radials, rated at 1,900 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan of all versions was 73 feet 9 13?16 inches, and fuselage length was 61 feet, 4 7?32 inches. Maximum speed of the aircraft was 334 miles per hour at 19,980 feet, with a service ceiling of 31,070 feet and a range of 2,360 miles. The final variant of the Peggy was armed with one flexible 12.7-mm machine gun in the nose and beam positions, twin flexible 12.7- mm machine guns in the tail turret, and one 20- mm cannon in the dorsal turret. Normal maximum bomb load was 1,764 pounds. For torpedo attack, the Peggy carried one 1,764-pound or one 2,359-pound torpedo. For suicide attack (kamikaze), the aircraft was loaded with up to 6,393 pounds of bombs. The crew consisted normally of six to eight and was reduced to three for suicide missions. Whereas Japan produced no heavy bombers and few notable medium bombers, its Imperial Navy and Army did fly an extraordinary array of fighters, the most famous of which was the navy's Mitsubishi A6M Zero (code named "Zeke" by the Allies). Mitsubishi A6M Zero ("Zeke"). Although hardly graceful in appearance, the Zero was fast and highly maneuverable with very good range. Early in the war, it outclassed anything the United States or other Allies could hurl against it, and it was, prior to the Battle of Midway in June 1942, the only carrier-based fighter in any combatant's inventory that was capable of outperforming and defeating land-based aircraft. In early encounters, American pilots learned quite rightly to fear the Zero. The Imperial Navy issued highly advanced and demanding requirements for a new carrier fighter in October 1937. Whereas the Nakajima Company rejected the requirements as unrealistic, Mitsubishi forged ahead to design an all-metal low-wing monoplane, with a 780-horsepower Mitsubishi Zuisei 13 engine and (ultimately) a three-bladed propeller. In this configuration, the Zero met or exceeded all navy requirements, except for level speed. After Mitsubishi introduced the more powerful 950-horsepower Nakajima Sakae 12 engine, the Zero exceeded all requirements, and full-scale production began. The aircraft was first deployed in small numbers in China during 1940. By the end of this year, Zeros had shot down 99 Chinese fighter aircraft, with the loss of only two Zeros—and these to ground fire, not the fire of their aerial opponents. At the beginning of the war in the Pacific, Japan had only 328 Zeros ready for combat. Despite these relatively small numbers, the aircraft was instrumental in Japan's string of early stunning aircraft, Japanese 17 victories, beginning with the Battle of Pearl Harbor up to the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. While this battle was a tactical victory for the Japanese, it was a strategic defeat, which ended the momentum of the Japanese juggernaut. This was followed by Japan's defeat at the Battle of Midway in June, which included the loss of four Japanese carriers, together with the Zeros (and other aircraft) they carried as well as many of the Imperial Navy's best pilots. This was not only the strategic turning point of the war, but spelled an end to the unchallenged reign of the Zero. The fighter was designed as an offensive weapon, with little armor and no self-sealing fuel tanks. Cast now into the defensive role, it proved increasingly vulnerable, especially as American aircraft improved and American pilots became more skilled. Despite this, Japanese designers continually worked throughout the war to refine the Zero, and it remained a mainstay of the Japanese naval air fleet until the surrender. While the Zero was the most celebrated Japanese aircraft of World War II, the Allies experienced some confusion concerning nomenclature. The Allies code named the aircraft Zeke beginning in fall 1942, but misidentification of several variants also gave rise to the code names Ben, Ray, and Hamp. Eventually, all these were recognized as variants on the Zeke—yet, amid the confusion, that designation was largely rejected by U.S. military personnel, who universally adopted the English translation of the Japanese name for the aircraft, Reisen, Zero. All Zero variants were single-seat, single-engine carrier-based fighters, featuring all-metal construction except for fabric-covered control surfaces and crewed by one pilot. Mitsubishi produced 3,840 Zeros, and Nakajima (under license) produced 6,528. The power plant for the A6M2 variant was one Nakajima NK1C Sakae 12 14-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 940 horsepower for takeoff. The A6M3 and A6M5 variants had one Nakajima NK1F Sakae 21 14-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 1,130 horsepower for takeoff, and the A6M6c and A6M7 variants had one Nakajima Sakae 31 14-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 1,130 horsepower for takeoff. The most powerful version, the A6M8, had one Mitsubishi MK8P Kinsei 62 14-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 1,560 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan of the A6M2 Model 21 was 39 feet 4 7?16 inches; A6M3 Model 32, 36 feet 1 1?16 inches; A6M5 Model 52, 36 feet 1 1?16 inches; and A6M8 Model 64, 36 feet 1 1?16 inches. Fuselage length of the A6M2 Model 21 was 29 feet 8 11?16 inches; A6M3 Model 32, 29 feet 8 11?16 inches; A6M5 Model 52, 29 feet 11 7?32 inches; and A6M8 Model 64, 30 feet 3 21?32 inches. The A6M2 Model 21 made 331 miles per hour at 14,950 feet; the A6M3 Model 32, 338 miles per hour at 19,685 feet; the A6M5 Model 52, 351 miles per hour at 19,685 feet; and the A6M8 Model 64, 356 miles per hour at 19,685 feet. Service ceiling for the A6M2 Model 21 was 32,810 feet; the A6M3 Model 32, 36,250 feet; the A6M5 Model 52, 38,520 feet; and the A6M8 Model 64, 37,075 feet. The A6M2 Model 21 had a range of 1,930 miles; the A6M3 Model 32, 1,477 miles; the A6M5 Model 52, 1,194 miles; and the A6M8 Model 64, 1,194 miles. Typical armament for versions A6M2 through A6M5a included two fuselage-mounted 7.7-mm machine guns and two wing-mounted 20-mm cannon. The A6M5b had one fuselage-mounted 7.7-mm machine gun, one fuselage-mounted 13.2-mm machine gun, and two wing-mounted 20-mm cannon, while the A6M5c, A6M6c, and A6M7 versions had one fuselage-mounted 13.2- mm machine gun, two wing-mounted 20-mm cannon, and two wing-mounted 13.2-mm machine guns. The A6M8 had two wing-mounted 20-mm cannon and two wing-mounted 13.2-mm machine guns. For most versions, the normal bomb load was two 132-pound bombs under the wings. However, the A6M7 and A6M8 versions carried one 1,102-pound bomb under the fuselage. For suicide missions, all aircraft were loaded with one 551-pound bomb under the fuselage. A6M6c and A6M8 Zeroes could be loaded with eight 22-pound or two 132-pound air-to-air rockets. To extend range, drop tanks were used— one under-belly 72.6-gallon drop tank for all versions except the A6M7 and A6M8, which could carry two under-wing 77-gallon drop tanks. 18 aircraft, Japanese Other Japanese naval fighter aircraft of note include the following. Kawanishi N1K1-J Shiden ("George"). This was a land-based naval fighter, which first flew on December 27, 1942, and entered production the following year. A formidable opponent against U.S. carrier-based fighters and dive bombers, the George was afflicted with manufacturing and reliability problems. A particularly serious flaw was weak landing gear, which were finally modified in the final version of the aircraft, designated NIK2-J. Before the war ended, 1,435 George aircraft, of all variant types, had been produced. The power plant for the George was one 1,990- horsepower Nakajima NK9H Homare 21 radial engine, the wingspan was 39 feet 4.4 inches, and the fuselage length was 29 feet 2 inches. The George had a top speed of 363 miles per hour at 19,357 feet. Its armament consisted of two 7.7-mm Type 97 machine guns in the nose and four wingmounted 20-mm Type 99 cannon. Kyushu J7W1 Shinden. While the Japanese name of the "George," Shiden, means "Violet Lightning," Shinden translates as "Magnificent Lightning." The Allies provided no English-language code name for this innovative fighter, which featured a canard wing forward of the main wing, two wing-mounted vertical stabilizers, and a rear-mounted pusher-type propeller arrangement. The prototype flew on August 3, 1945, just three days before the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. The aircraft, of course, never entered production or service. Its powerplant was a single Mitsubishi MK9D 18- cylinder air-cooled radial engine, rated at 2,130 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan was 36 feet 5 9?16 inches and fuselage length, 31 feet 8 5?16 inches. Maximum speed for the Shinden was a stunning 466 miles per hour at 28,545 feet, with a service ceiling of 39,370 feet and a range of 529 miles. The aircraft was armed with four forward-firing 30-mm cannon in the nose, and there was provision under the wings for four 66-pound bombs or two 132- pound bombs. Mitsubishi A5M ("Claude"). In this aircraft, Japan developed the world's first monoplane shipboard fighter. It was flown in prototype on February 4, 1935, and entered service in 1937, flying extensively in the Sino-Japanese War and in the early days of World War II itself. By the time production ended, 1,094 Claudes had been produced, including a two-seat trainer version, which prepared many pilots for the successor to the Claude, the great Zero. The A5M variant was a single-seat carrierbased fighter, and the A5M4-K was a two-seat fighter trainer. The aircraft featured all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces and (on later models) one Nakajima Kotobuki 41 ninecylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 710 horsepower for takeoff. Later models of the aircraft had a wingspan of 36 feet 1 3?16 inches and a fuselage length of 24 feet 9 27?32 inches. Top speed in later models was 270 miles per hour at 9,845 feet, with a service ceiling of 32,150 feet and a range of 746 miles. Typical armament consisted of two fuselage-mounted 7.7- mm machine guns, or two fuselage-mounted 20- mm cannon, or one engine-mounted 20-mm cannon. The aircraft could carry two 66-pound bombs or one 35.2-gallon drop tank. Mitsubishi J2M Raiden ("Jack"). The J2M Raiden—"Thunderbolt"— was code-named "Jack" by the Allies and was the Imperial Japanese Navy's first fighter expressly intended as a land-based interceptor. Like the army's Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki ("Tojo"), the Jack sacrificed maneuverability, the usual hallmark of the Japanese fighter, for speed and a high rate of climb. Indeed, navy planners had a difficult time accepting this compromise, and the development of the Jack was exceedingly troubled. Although design work began in 1938, a prototype was not completed until February 1942, and even after the navy accepted the interceptor in October, the plane was plagued by problems. By the time these were resolved, production of the aircraft had to give way to the high priority accorded production of the Zero, and only 476 Jacks were built before the war ended. The Jack saw some service in the Philippines during September 1944, but it was used primarily against B-29s raiding the Japanese home islands. It was highly effective in this mission during the daytime, but, beginning in March 1945, when U.S. aircraft, Japanese 19 strategists concentrated on incendiary raids by night and when the B-29s were regularly escorted by Iwo Jima–based P-47 Thunderbolts and P-51 Mustangs, the Jack became far less effective as an interceptor. A single-seat, single-engine interceptor, the Jack had all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces. Its powerplant in later models was one Mitsubishi Kasei 26a 14-cylinder air-cooled supercharged radial, rated at 1,820 horsepower for takeoff. In later models, the wingspan was 35 feet 5 3?16 inches, and the fuselage length 33 feet 7 17?32 inches. At its best, the Jack made 382 miles per hour at 22,310 feet and had a service ceiling of 36,910 feet and a range of 680 miles. Later models were equipped with four wing-mounted 20-mm cannon, and all models had two underwing racks to accommodate two 132-pound bombs. Nakajima J1N Gekko ("Irving"). The Gekko— "Moonlight"—was the Imperial Navy's land-based, twin-engine, long-range escort fighter. It never fared well in its intended role, however, and was soon used for reconnaissance duty and then as a night fighter. In this latter role, it finally found its niche, although with the advent of the B-29 over Japan itself, the Gekko proved a far less effective contender. Development of the Gekko began in 1938 in response to the navy's perceived need for a longrange escort in the Chinese theater during the Sino-Japanese War. A prototype flew in May 1941, but, as was so often the case with high-performance Japanese prototypes, the aircraft was plagued with problems; in October it was decided to reconfigure it for the reconnaissance mission. It served in this capacity until spring 1943, when some of the aircraft were converted as night fighters, incorporating two forward- and upward-firing 20-mm cannon in the observer's cockpit and two more that fired forward and downward. Against B- 17 Flying Fortresses, the newly reconfigured Gekko proved quite effective, and authorization was given to build more of the night fighter variants. The first J1N1-S Gekko Model 11, the purposebuilt night fighter variant, rolled off the Nakajima assembly line in August 1943. This model either incorporated radar or a nose-mounted searchlight. The limited service ceiling, while sufficient for attacking B-17s, made the Gekko ineffective against B-29s. Before production ended in December 1944, 479 had been built. A twin-engine, long-range escort fighter, reconnaissance aircraft, and night fighter (depending on the variant), the Gekko was constructed of metal with fabric-covered control surfaces. The night fighter variant was powered by two Nakajima Sakae 21 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engines, rated at 1,130 horsepower for takeoff. It had a wingspan of 55 feet 8 ½ inches and a length of 39 feet 11 17?32 inches. Top speed was 315 miles per hour at 19,160 feet, with a service ceiling of 30,610 feet and a range of 2,348 miles. The night fighter was armed with a pair of dorsal oblique-firing 20- mm cannon, and some aircraft also mounted one forward-firing 20-mm cannon in the nose. The Gekko could carry two 551-pound bombs, and all variants carried bombs when used for suicide attacks. The reconnaissance variant was crewed by three, and the night fighter by two. Important fighter aircraft flown primarily by the Japan Army Air Force include the following. Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ("Nick"). This twinengine fighter was designed to operate over greater range than a single-engine plane. Although not designed for the role, the Nick was used mainly as a night fighter. Prototypes were produced in 1939, but flight trials were initially disappointing, especially in terms of speed, and the aircraft underwent many revisions before the required speed of 335 miles per hour was achieved in late 1940. The first production Nicks were not delivered until August 1942, and the aircraft was first used in combat in October in China. Crews welcomed its armor and highly survivable design, and in China it was deployed primarily against naval targets and for ground attack. In other theaters, the Nick was used increasingly for night missions. Total output of the Nick reached 1,701 aircraft before production ended in July 1945. A twinengine fighter and ground-attack aircraft, the Nick was of all-metal construction except for its fabriccovered control surfaces. In late models, the power 20 aircraft, Japanese plant was two Nakajima Ha-102 14-cylinder aircooled radials, rated at 1,080 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan measured 49 feet 3 5?16 inches and length 36 feet 1 1?16 inches. Maximum speed of the aircraft was 335.5 miles per hour at 19,685 feet, with a service ceiling of 32,810 feet and a range of 1,243 miles. Late-model Nicks were armed with two nose-mounted 20-mm cannon, one 37-mm cannon in a ventral tunnel, and one rearward-firing 7.9-mm machine gun. Many Nicks were modified in the field with different configurations of armament. The crew consisted of a pilot and radio operator-gunner, who were accommodated in separate cockpits. Kawasaki Ki-61 Hien ("Tony"). The Tony first saw combat in New Guinea in summer 1943 and was the first Japan Army Air Force fighter to incorporate both armor plating and self-sealing fuel tanks into its design from the outset. Previous fighters, most notably the Zero, sacrificed these in the interest of saving weight and thereby gaining performance, maneuverability, and range. Not only did the Hien ("Swallow") represent a departure from traditional design policy in this respect, it also looked very different from the blunt Zero and other fighters. Its sleek, streamlined profile much more closely resembled the German Bf-109, the Italian Macchi MC-202, or even the American P-51 Mustang. The profile had little or nothing to do with imitation, however, and was largely a function of the incorporation of a liquid-cooled engine, which meant that the forward end of the aircraft could feature a sleek nosecone instead of the blunt, openended cowling required by air-cooled radials. As with the Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ("Nick"), the Tony, first prototyped in December 1941, went through many revisions and iterations before production was finally authorized. In the end, the Tony sacrificed a certain amount of maneuverability for high ceiling, high dive speeds, and armor protection. While the Tony proved to be a good fighter, it was chronically plagued by engine reliability problems, but by January 1945, 2,654 had been built. The aircraft operated in New Guinea and Rabaul as well as the Philippines, China, Formosa, Okinawa, and Japan itself, defending against B-29 raids. A formidable opponent in a dogfight, the Tony nevertheless met its match in the P-51D Mustang. A single-seat fighter, the Tony was of all-metal construction except for fabric-covered control surfaces. In later models, power was provided by a single Kawasaki Ha-140 12-cylinder inverted-V liquid-cooled engine, rated at 1,500 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan was 39 feet 4 7?16 inches and length, 30 feet 5?8 inches. Late variants could reach 379 miles per hour at 19,685 feet, and service ceiling was 36,090 feet. Maximum range of the Tony was 995 miles. Later models were armed with two fuselage-mounted 12.7-mm machine guns and two wing-mounted 30-mm cannon, or four 20-mm cannon, two in the fuselage and two in the wings. Bomb load for all versions consisted of a pair of 551-pound bombs. Kawasaki Ki-100 Goshikisen. The Allies first encountered the Ki-100 early in 1945 during attacks on the Japanese home islands. The plane was so new, introduced very late in the war, that Allied observers never got around to assigning it an English- language code name. Nevertheless, the new aircraft outperformed such U.S. carrier-based planes as the Hellcat and even held its own against the land-based P-51 Mustang. As shocking as the sudden appearance of the "new" aircraft was, the Ki-100 was not a radical new design, but was, rather, an extensive modification of the Ki-61, fitted with a larger air-cooled engine and a cut-down rear fuselage to improve the pilot's rear vision. Both these modifications were intended to create an effective high-altitude interceptor to meet the onslaught of the U.S. B-29s over the Japanese homeland. The new, more powerful engine enabled operation at more than 30,000 feet—customary B- 29 territory—and the improved pilot visibility was indispensable to an interceptor operating among heavily armed Superfortresses and their Mustang escorts. Total production of the Ki-100, most of which commandeered Ki-61 airframes under construction, was no more than 393. A Ki-100-II, with an even more powerful turbosupercharged engine, was planned and prototyped, but the Japanese surrender came before production was started. aircraft, Japanese 21 A single-seat fighter, the Ki-100 featured allmetal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces. It was driven by a single Mitsubishi Ha- 112-II 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engine, rated at 1,500 horsepower for takeoff, and had a wingspan of 39 feet 4 7?16 inches and a length of 28 feet 11 ¼ inches. Top speed was 360 miles per hour at 19,685 feet, with a service ceiling of 36,090 feet and a range of 1,367 miles. Armament consisted of two fuselage-mounted 20-mm cannon and two wingmounted 12.7-mm machine guns. There was provision for two underwing 44-gallon drop-tanks or two 551-pound bombs. Nakajima Ki-27 ("Nate"). This low-wing cantilever monoplane with fixed landing gear first saw service in the Sino-Japanese War that began before World War II proper. Its introduction marked the transition of the Japan Army Air Force into a modern air arm, although the Ki-27 could not have competed with such European fighters as the Messerschmitt Bf-109 and the Hawker Hurricane. The prototype flew on October 15, 1936, and it went into production at the end of the following year. Total production during the war was 3,399. By 1944, the Ki27 was hopelessly obsolete as a fighter, but it continued to be used for advance flight training and, at the end of the war, loaded with some 1,102 pounds of bombs as a suicide aircraft. A single-seat fighter, the Nate featured all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces. Its powerplant (in late models) was a single Nakajima Ha-1b nine-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 710 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan was 37 feet 1 ¼ inches and length 24 feet 8 7?16 inches. The Nate had a maximum speed of 292 miles per hour at 11,480 feet and a range of 1,060 miles. Typically, the Nate was armed with a pair of fuselagemounted 7.7-mm machine guns and carried four 55-pound bombs or two 28.6-gallon drop-tanks. Nakajima Ki-43 ("Oscar"). The Japanese name for the Nakajima Ki-43 ("Oscar"), Hayabusa, means "Peregrine Falcon," and, like its namesake, this aircraft was an extremely agile hunter, similar to the Zero but lighter, sleeker, and even more maneuverable, though rather slow and armed with nothing more than two fuselage-mounted machine guns. Early in the war, the Oscar figured as a very formidable opponent, but it was soon outgunned and generally outclassed by newer Allied fighters. Production reached 5,919 before and during the war. A single-seat, single-engine fighter, the Oscar was of all-metal construction except for its fabriccovered control surfaces. The power plant in later models was one Mitsubishi Ha-112 14-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 1,300 horsepower for takeoff, the wingspan measured 35 feet 6 ¾ inches, and length was 29 feet 3 5?16 inches. The late models reached 358 miles per hour at 21,920 feet and had a service ceiling of 37,400 feet, with a range of 1,990 miles. Armament on later models was two 20-mm cannon, whereas earlier models had two machine guns only. Bomb load was two 66-pound or one 551-pound bombs or two 44-gallon droptanks. Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki ("Tojo"). The Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki ("Tojo") was expressly designed as an interceptor. Shoki, its Japanese name, means "Devil Killer," and its mission was to intercept American bombers. As an interceptor design, the Tojo sacrificed maneuverability, much cherished in other Japanese fighters, for speed and rate of climb. The prototype flew in August 1940, and, after repeated modification, the aircraft was accepted by the Japan Army Air Force in September 1942. It was the fastest Japanese fighter aircraft. Before production ended in December 1944, 1,225 of the planes had been built. A single-seat interceptor, the Tojo featured allmetal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces. In later models, the power plant was one Nakajima Ha-145 18-cylinder air-cooled radial, rated at 2,000 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan was 31 feet 1?16 inches and length, 28 feet 9 7?8 inches. The aircraft could hit 376 miles per hour at 17,060 feet and had a service ceiling of 36,745 feet, with a range of 1,056 miles. Late-model Tojos were armed with four 20-mm cannon, two in the fuselage and two in the wings, or two fuselagemounted 20-mm cannon and two wing-mounted 37-mm cannons. 22 aircraft, Japanese Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate ("Frank"). This is generally considered the best of the late Japanese fighters, and it saw desperate action in the culminating battles of the Pacific war, beginning with the Allied invasion of the Philippines and throughout the defense of the home islands. The Frank could outclimb, out-run, and out-maneuver both the U.S. P-51D Mustang and the P-47D Thunderbolt. Unfortunately for the Japanese, the aircraft was introduced quite late in the war, and it was built under conditions that tended to produce severe quality-control problems, which made the Frank unreliable. The prototype flew in April 1943, and the plane entered service at the beginning of 1944. Hard-pressed production facilities managed to turn out 3,415 of the aircraft before the end of the war. A single-seat fighter/fighter-bomber, the Frank was initially produced with all-metal construction and fabric-covered control surfaces. Later models featured a wooden rear fuselage, wingtips, and control rods or lightweight alloys with carbon steel ribs, bulkheads, and cockpit section and sheet steel skinning. The Ki-106 version was made entirely of wood in an effort to conserve scarce metals. For most variants, the power plant was a single Nakajima Ha-45 (Army Type 4) 18-cylinder air-cooled radial engine, rated at 1,800 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan measured 36 feet 10 7?16 inches, length 32 feet 6 9?16 inches. Top speed was 392 miles per hour at 20,080 feet, and service ceiling was 34,450 feet. Range was 1,347 miles. Typical armament consisted of two fuselage-mounted 12.7-mm machine guns and two wing-mounted 20-mm cannon. The aircraft could carry two 551-pound bombs or two 44-gallon drop-tanks. In addition to important bombers and landand carrier-based fighters, the Japanese also operated seaplane fighters. Kawanishi N1K Kyofu ("Rex"), Nakajima A6M2-N ("Rufe"), and Aichi E13A ("Jake"). The Rex was a seaplane variant of the Shiden, and the Rufe was a seaplane variant of the Zero. Several other seaplanes saw service with the Japanese forces, the most important of which was the Aichi E13A ("Jake"). Ordered in 1937 by the Imperial Navy as a reconnaissance floatplane, the E13A was prototyped the following year and began production in December 1940. Total production during the war was 1,418. In combat, the Jake was launched from the catapults of cruisers and seaplane tenders and was used not just for reconnaissance but for ground attack and against shipping. The aircraft saw action in China, and, launched from the cruisers Tone, Chikuma, and Kinugasa, it performed preattack reconnaissance of Pearl Harbor. The versatile aircraft was also used for bombing missions, long-range patrols, staff transport, and air-sea rescue, as well as suicide missions. Its major flaw was a lack of armor protection for crew and fuel tanks and inadequate defensive armament (a single 7.7-mm machine gun mounted in the rear cockpit). However, its endurance was an impressive 15 hours, which made it ideal for longrange reconnaissance. A single-engine, three-seat, float reconnaissance seaplane, the Jake was built of metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces. Its power plant was a single Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 14- cylinder air-cooled radial engine, rated at 1,060 horsepower for takeoff. Wingspan measured 47 feet 6 7?8 inches, and length 37 feet 7?8 inches. The Jake's top speed was 234 miles per hour at 7,155 feet, and its service ceiling was 28,640 feet. Maximum range was 1,298 miles. Typical armament included one rearward-firing flexible 7.7-mm machine gun, and some aircraft were field-modified with the addition of a downward-firing ventral 20-mm cannon. The Jake carried a single 551- pound bomb or four 132-pound bombs or depth charges for antisubmarine warfare. For the transport mission, the Japanese converted two of their bomber types and also flew the L2D ("Tabby"), which was a Douglas DC-3 (civilian version of the military's C-47), built under a license concluded in 1938. Further reading: Collier, Basil. Japanese Aircraft of World War II. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1981; Francillon, René J. Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War. New York: Putnam, 1970; Green, William. Warplanes of the Second World War: Bombers. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, aircraft, Japanese 23 1968; Green, William. Warplanes of the Second World War: Fighters. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968; Gunston, Bill. Japanese and Italian Aircraft. London: Book Sales, 1985; Mikesh, R. Japanese Aircraft: Code Names and Designations. Atglen, Penn.: Schiffer Publishing, 1993; Sakaida, Henry. Japanese Army Air Force Aces 1937–1945. London: Osprey, 1997.