Football.

Football. I INTRODUCTION Football, game played on a rectangular field by two opposing teams with an inflated leather ball that is roughly oval in shape. The object of the game is to score points by carrying the ball across the opponent's goal line or by kicking the ball through the opponent's goalposts. Football is considered a full-contact sport, meaning that play involves bodily contact by way of checking, blocking, grabbing, and tackling. Because of the rough physical nature of the game, playing football can cause injuries. This article focuses on the game of American football, a distinct type of football that developed in the United States in the 19th century. It developed out of two other sports, soccer (originally known as association football) and rugby football, each of which remains a separate sport with its own specific set of rules. American football differs slightly in rules and field size from a style of football played mostly in Canada, called Canadian football. Other varieties of the game popular in different parts of the world include Australian football and Gaelic football. For more on Australian football, see the Australia article. Played by professionals and amateurs (generally male high school and college students), football is one of the most popular American sports, attracting thousands of participants and millions of spectators annually. The sport's premier event is the championship game of the National Football League (NFL), which is called the Super Bowl. For decades this event was held in January, but more recently it has been held in early February. The Super Bowl is watched by millions every year, usually the biggest audience for a single televised event the whole year. College football holds a series of bowl games for its top teams in December and January, and these also attract high levels of interest from fans. II FIELD Football can be played on a variety of surfaces, including grass, dirt, and artificial turf. An NFL-regulation playing field measures 120 yd (110 m) long and 53 yd 1 ft (48.8 m) wide. At both ends of the 100-yd main body of the playing field, white lines called goal lines mark off the entrances to the end zones, which are 10 yd (9 m) deep. Each team defends one end zone. Lines parallel to the end zones cross the main body of the field at 5-yd (4.5-m) intervals. Sets of lines called the sidelines run along both sides of the field. In addition, two sets of short lines, called hash marks, run down the field at 1-yd (.9-m) intervals. The hash marks are 53 ft 4 in (16.3 m) from each sideline in high school football, 60 ft (18.3 m) in college football, and 70 ft 9 in (21.6 m) in the NFL. After each play, the officials place the ball either between the hash marks or on the hash mark closest to the end of the previous play. The next play begins from that spot. Situated in the middle of the rear line of each end zone is a goalpost. Each goalpost is held up by a 10-ft (3-m) vertical pole topped by a horizontal crossbar. Two vertical posts extend up from either end of the crossbar. In high school football the vertical posts are 23 ft 3 in (7.1 m) apart. In college and professional football the vertical posts are separated by 18 ft 6 in (5.6 m). Kickers can score an extra point after a touchdown (worth one point) or a field goal (worth three points) by kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the vertical posts from a placement on the field. III PLAYERS Football is played by two opposing teams, each fielding 11 players. Each team is on offense when it possesses the ball, switching to defense when it defends its goal line against the other team. When a team is on offense, it tries to move the ball down the field to score in the end zone defended by the opponent's defensive team. Teams take turns playing offense and defense. Another group of players, called special teams, enter the game when possession of the ball changes, or when a field goal or extra point is attempted. At the professional level, players usually specialize at one position on either an offensive or a defensive team. On some college teams and especially at the high school level, players can play both offense and defense. A Offense The 11 players of the offensive team work together to move the ball downfield toward their opponent's end zone. They are divided into two groups: seven linemen, who play on the line of scrimmage (an imaginary line designating the position of the ball) and four other players who stand in various positions behind the linemen or out to the sides. The lineman who is positioned in the middle of the line is called the center. On his left is the left guard and on his right is the right guard. On the left of the left guard is the left tackle, and on the right of the right guard is the right tackle. On the ends of the line are the tight end and the split end. The center begins each play by hiking the ball--that is, passing it between his legs from a crouched position to the player standing directly behind him, usually the quarterback. (This action is also referred to as the snap.) After the ball is hiked on a running play, the center, guards, and tackles block defenders to create an open path for the ball carrier. On passing plays the linemen pass block to protect the quarterback and give him time to throw. Tight ends and split ends can block opponents, but they may also catch the ball during a passing play. The quarterback directs the play of the offensive team by calling out each play. The other backs are known as running backs, and they line up behind the quarterback in an area known as the backfield. These running backs are also known as halfbacks or fullbacks. The quarterback has many options, including handing the ball off to another player, passing it, or running with it downfield. In a balanced backfield formation, known as the T-formation, the fullback stands behind the quarterback, and the left and right halfbacks stand to either side of the fullback. When the quarterback hands the ball off to one of these backs, that player rushes, or runs with the ball. The running backs also often block when the quarterback throws a pass, or they can move out wide to catch a pass. Many passes go to wide receivers, players who line up on the line of scrimmage but wide of the rest of the formation. They run down the field in planned pass routes to catch balls thrown by the quarterback. B Defense The defensive players work together to prevent the offense from scoring. A row of linemen called the defensive line position themselves at the line of scrimmage; a row of linebackers position themselves about 5 yd (4.6 m) behind the defensive line; and a collection of defensive backs, called the secondary, stand on the end of the defensive line and behind the linebackers. The defensive line can use any number of players, but most teams use three or four linemen. Defensive linemen are primarily responsible for stopping the opposition's rushing attack and, in passing situations, putting pressure on the quarterback. Depending on the situation, the linebackers (who start out behind the defensive line) stop runners, pressure the quarterback, or cover the opposition's receivers. Teams usually employ three or four linebackers. Sometimes the defensive team will call for a blitz, which is a play that sends extra linebackers charging at the quarterback, trying to make a sack (tackling the quarterback behind the line of scrimmage). The secondary is composed of cornerbacks and safeties. These players cover receivers and tackle any back who breaks down the field. The secondary commonly consists of two cornerbacks who defend the wide receivers and two safeties who guard the area behind the linebackers and help cover receivers. C Special Teams Each team has players who enter the game during special plays such as kickoffs, field goals, punts, and returns. The kicker kicks off at the beginning of a game or half, and after his team has scored. The kicker also scores points for the offensive team by kicking the ball through the goalpost's vertical posts, also known as the uprights; these scores are called field goals. When the offensive team must surrender the ball to the opponents, a punter comes in to kick the ball downfield as far as possible toward the opponent's end zone. One player on the return team catches the kickoff or punt and runs upfield while the other return team players block for him. The return team tries to give the offense good starting field position. IV OFFICIALS A team of officials supervise play in a regulation game. Professional and major college football programs use seven officials: a referee, an umpire, a linesman, a field judge, a back judge, a line judge, and a side judge. The officials carry whistles and yellow penalty flags. They throw the flags to indicate that a player or players have broken a rule. Blowing a whistle signals that a play has ended or is about to begin. The referee is in charge of the game at all levels of play. The referee supervises the other officials, decides on all matters not under other officials' specific jurisdiction, and enforces penalties. The referee indicates when the ball is dead or out of play, and when it may again be put into play. The referee uses hand signals to indicate these specific decisions and penalties. The referee also makes all final decisions regarding instant replay, which occurs when a questionable call is reviewed on videotape. The umpire makes decisions on questions concerning the players' equipment, their conduct, and their positioning. The principal duty of the head linesman is to mark the position of the ball at the end of each play. The linesman has assistants who measure distances gained or lost, using a device consisting of two vertical markers connected by a chain or cord 10 yd (9 m) long. The linesman must also watch for violations of the rule requiring players to remain in certain positions before the ball is put into play. The field judge times the game, using a stopwatch for this purpose. In some cases, the stadium scoreboard has a clock that is considered official. The line judge watches the line of scrimmage for infractions such as offsides (being on the wrong side of the ball before the snap). The side judge observes the receivers to see if a catch is made or if there is interference on the play. The back judge watches for holding by ends or backs and rules on whether catches in the back of the end zone (called the end line) were made inbounds. V EQUIPMENT A football is an extended spheroid with a circumference of 28.5 in (72.4 cm) around the long axis and 21.25 in (54 cm) around the short axis. It weighs from 14 to 15 oz (397 to 425 g). The football also has eight stitches that protrude from one side. They help quarterbacks and other players grip the ball when throwing a pass or running with the ball. Each football player wears a uniform that includes a numbered jersey. Beneath the jersey and pants each player also wears a set of gear collectively known as pads. The pads protect the player from bodily contact that may occur during the game. Most pads are made of lightweight foam and hard plastic shells that cover the thighs, hips, shoulders, and knees. On grass fields players wear spiked shoes, called cleats, which provide traction. On artificial surfaces, players usually wear shoes specially designed to grip the playing field and absorb the shock of the hard surface. Every player wears a helmet to protect the face, head, and ears. The helmet consists of a durable plastic shell and a set of foam pads that cushion the head. A plastic strap attaches to each side of the helmet below the ears and runs underneath the player's chin. This strap keeps the helmet in place when the player is hit. The helmet also has holes near each ear to allow the player to hear. On the front of each helmet is a plastic-coated piece of metal called a face mask, which protects the player but also allows him to see. Linemen and linebackers usually have larger and more extensive face masks because they do the majority of blocking and tackling. Backs and secondary players usually have more open face masks that provide a wider field of vision. It is illegal during any point of the game to grab an opponent's face mask. VI PLAY A regulation football game is divided into four quarters, each consisting of 15 minutes of playing time. High school games are often shortened to 12 minutes per quarter. The first two periods constitute the first half of a game; the second two make up the second half. Between the halves, a rest period known as halftime, usually lasting about 15 minutes, is permitted. The teams change halves of the field at the end of each quarter. The clock stops at the end of each quarter and at certain other times, when particular events occur or when designated by the officials. A Kickoff At the beginning of each game, the referee tosses a coin in the presence of the two team captains to determine which team kicks off and which receives the kickoff. At the start of the second half, the team that kicked off in the first half receives the kickoff. During an NFL regulation game the kickoff is made from the kicking team's 30-yard line. (During a college game the ball is kicked from the 35-yard line.) The kicking team lines up at or behind the ball, while the opponents spread out over their territory in a formation calculated to help them to catch the ball and run it back effectively. If the kick stays within the boundaries of the field, any player on the receiving team may catch the ball, or pick it up on a bounce, and run with it. As the player runs, the player may be tackled by any opponent and stopped; this is known as being downed. The player carrying the ball is considered downed when one knee touches the ground. Tacklers use their hands and arms to stop opponents and throw them to the ground. After the ball carrier is stopped, the referee blows a whistle to stop play and places the ball on the spot where the runner was downed. Play also stops when the ball carrier runs out of bounds. B Running a Play Offensive plays in football are run from a set formation known as a scrimmage. Before a scrimmage begins, the team on offense usually gathers in a circle, called a huddle, and discusses the play it will use. A coach either signals the play choice to the team from the sidelines, sends a play in with a player, or the team's quarterback chooses from among the dozens of preset plays that the team has prepared. The defensive team also forms a huddle and discusses its next attempt to slow the offense. Each play is designated by code numbers or words, called signals. After the teams come out of their respective huddles, they line up opposite each other on the line of scrimmage. If the quarterback analyzes the defensive alignment and decides that the chosen play should be changed, the quarterback can call an audible and shout out the coded directions for a new play. The defense can adjust its formation at this point as well. Play begins when the center crouches over the ball and, on a spoken signal, hikes it to the quarterback. Based upon the chosen play, the quarterback can pass the ball, hand it off to a teammate, or run with it. During the scrimmage, the players on the offensive team may block the defenders using their bodies, but they are constrained by specific rules regarding the use of their hands or arms. The player running with the ball, however, is allowed to use an arm to push off potential tacklers. Perhaps the most exciting offensive play is the forward pass, in which the ball is thrown downfield. The quarterback nearly always throws the ball, and backs, ends, and wide receivers may catch it. A forward pass may be made only during scrimmage, and then only from behind the line of scrimmage. A lateral pass (throwing the ball backwards or on a line parallel to the line of scrimmage) may be made anywhere on the field to anyone anytime the ball is in play. The defending team tries to keep the offense from advancing the ball, or to stop the offense for a loss by tackling the ball carrier before the ball carrier reaches the line of scrimmage. The offense must advance the ball at least 10 yards in four tries, called downs. After each play, the teams huddle and then line up again and a new scrimmage takes place. If the team on offense fails to travel 10 yards in four downs, it must surrender the ball to its opponent after the fourth down. A team will often punt on fourth down if it has not gained at least 10 yards in its previous three tries. In punting, the punter receives the snap, drops the ball, and kicks it before it touches the ground. By punting, a team can send the ball away from its own end zone, weakening the opponent's field position. The defense can also gain possession of the ball by recovering a fumble or making an interception. A fumble occurs when a player in possession of the ball drops it before being tackled and downed. When this occurs, any player can then fall on top of or pick up the loose ball. An interception is when one of the defensive players catches a ball thrown by the offensive team. The defensive player who recovers a fumble or makes an interception may run with the ball toward the opponent's end zone until being tackled and downed or forced out of bounds. In professional football, a player is considered downed when his knee touches the ground due to contact by the opposing team. In college and high school play, a player is down when his knee touches the ground, even if no defensive player has made contact. C Scoring The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing team. Teams can score by making a touchdown, an extra-point conversion after a touchdown, a field goal, or a safety. A team scores a touchdown when one of its players carries the ball into the opposing team's end zone or catches a pass in the end zone. A touchdown is worth six points. After a team has scored a touchdown, it tries for an extra-point conversion. This is an opportunity to score an additional one or two points. In college football the offensive team lines up at the opponent's 3-yard line and runs, passes, or kicks the ball. A running or passing conversion in which the ball crosses the goal line counts for two points. A kick, in which one player receives the snap and holds the ball upright on the ground for a teammate to kick between the goalposts and over the crossbar, counts for one point. In professional football, the offensive team lines up 2 or more yards from the goal line during an extra-point conversion. Just as in the college game, one or two points may be scored depending on the conversion method used. On offense, teams may also attempt to score by kicking a field goal, which counts for three points. For a successful field goal, the ball must be kicked between the goalposts and over the crossbar. Teams usually try for a field goal when they have the ball on the fourth down and are within about 35 yards of the end zone. After each field goal and extra-point conversion, the scoring team must kick off to its opponents. Two points are awarded to the defensive team for making a safety. A safety occurs when the offensive team has been forced down behind its own goal line (in the end zone). When the offensive team suffers a safety, it must punt the ball to the opponents to restart play. In certain situations, such as after receiving a kickoff, the offensive team is permitted to down the ball behind its line intentionally. This play, called a touchback, does not count in the scoring. Instead the ball is moved to the receiving team's 20-yard line, where the offense starts play. In college football, a game that ends in a tie is decided by a tiebreaker played in an overtime period. Each team gets a possession. The first team to have the ball begins an offensive series on the opponent's 25-yard line. The team's possession ends when it scores, turns the ball over, or fails to convert a fourth-down play. The other team then receives the same chance to score and also begins its offensive series from the opponent's 25-yard line. If one team scores and the other team fails to match that score, then the team with the most points wins the game. Additional overtime periods can be played if the teams are still tied after each has had a possession. In case of a tie in an NFL game, the teams play an overtime period, known as sudden death, in which the first team to score is declared the winner. If neither team has scored at the end of this 15-minute overtime period, then the tie is allowed to stand. In professional playoff games no ties are allowed, and the teams play until one scores. VII AMATEUR COMPETITION Each year more than 20 million people play some form of amateur football. Levels include programs for young boys and girls, junior high and high school competition, college intramural and intercollegiate play, and informal adult leagues. Intercollegiate contests are attended by more than 35 million spectators each year. Most organized amateur play takes place from September through January. A High School and College Football More than 1 million high school athletes play football in the United States. The majority of these athletes are boys; however, some girls also participate in the sport. The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), located in Indianapolis, Indiana, governs high school football. The NFHS does not crown a national champion. Instead, high school teams compete to win their state championship, with each state having its own guidelines for determining titles. Most states have several state champions by dividing schools into divisions based on the size of their student body. The most talented high school players usually are offered scholarships to play football in college. Football is one of the most popular college sports in the United States. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), located in Indianapolis, is the most important organization governing major college competition. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, oversees competition for smaller four-year schools. The National Junior College Athletic Association (NJCAA), located in Colorado Springs, Colorado, governs play for two-year and community colleges throughout the country. Under the jurisdiction of these national governing bodies are individual conferences and leagues based on school size and regional location. Well-known NCAA conferences include the Atlantic Coast, the Big Ten (northern Midwest), the Big 12 (Midwest), the Pacific-10 (Western states), the Southeastern Conference, and the Ivy League (Northeast). Many university stadiums hold more than 50,000 spectators; a few hold more than 100,000. Some of the most accomplished players in college football history include Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indian School; George Gipp of the University of Notre Dame; Red Grange of the University of Illinois; Tom Harmon of the University of Michigan; Doak Walker of Southern Methodist University; Glenn Davis and Doc Blanchard, the socalled Touchdown Twins of Army (the U.S. Military Academy); Joe Namath of the University of Alabama; O. J. Simpson of the University of Southern California; Walter Payton of Jackson State University; Tony Dorsett of the University of Pittsburgh; Joe Montana of the University of Notre Dame; Marcus Allen of the University of Southern California; Bo Jackson of Auburn University; Barry Sanders of Oklahoma State University; Charles Woodson of the University of Michigan; and Ricky Williams of the University of Texas. B Heisman Trophy and Other Awards After each college season, the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City presents the Heisman Trophy to the top college football player in the United States. Four players are nominated for the award, and a poll of sportswriters determines the winner. The award is named after John William Heisman, an outstanding early college football coach. The trophy was first awarded in 1935, and although any position player can win it, the Heisman winner is usually a quarterback, running back, or wide receiver. Winners of the Heisman Trophy who went on to excel in professional football include Paul Hornung, Roger Staubach, Earl Campbell, Vinny Testaverde, Tim Brown, and Eddie George. Several other awards are given to the nation's best player at specific positions. These include the Outland Trophy and Lombardi Award for the best lineman, the Butkus Award for the best linebacker, and the Thorpe Award for the best defensive back. C Bowl Games and National Championship College teams generally play 11 or 12 games during the fall. The best college teams are awarded trips to so-called bowl games, which match outstanding teams in specially arranged contests. The tradition began in 1902 at Pasadena, California, when Stanford University invited the University of Michigan to come to California for a New Year's Day contest. This event soon became the celebrated Rose Bowl game. Today, hundreds of thousands of fans travel to bowl games to watch their favorite teams play. In addition to the Rose Bowl, notable bowl games include the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas; the Fiesta Bowl in Phoenix, Arizona; the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida; and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana. Major corporations now sponsor many of the bowls. Most are televised live to large audiences. The top division of college football remains the only level of any NCAA sport that does not have a national championship tournament. The lucrative bowl system has been the biggest impediment to adopting a championship tournament like those held for lower-division NCAA football and other sports. Before the 1998 college season, the champion college team was selected by national polls of coaches and sportswriters. During some years, several teams posted similar win-loss records, causing debates over which team should be crowned the national champion. In 1998 the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) was instituted to determine the Division I national champion. The BCS involves using computer programs and other more traditional polls to determine the best teams. The top two teams are placed in the "national championship game," which rotated among the major bowls from 1999 until 2007. In 2007 the BCS National Championship Bowl was instituted rather than rotating the national championship game among the various major bowls. However, college football fans still debate whether the system fairly selects the national champion. VIII PROFESSIONAL COMPETITION The major professional league in the world is the National Football League (NFL). Over the years, however, several other leagues have formed in North America and Europe, playing regulation football or a modified version of the sport. A National Football League The NFL consists of 32 teams that are divided into two conferences: the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC), each of which has four divisions. The NFL season is played during the late summer, through autumn, and into January. Professional teams play 4 exhibition games, followed by 16 regular-season games. Teams play one game each week, using the time between games to recover, practice, and prepare for the next game. Each team receives one week without a game, known as a bye, during the season. At the end of the regular season, each conference holds separate playoff games to determine the conference champion. The top team in each division automatically qualifies for the conference playoffs. Two additional teams in each conference, called wild cards, also qualify for playoff berths based on their win-loss record in the conference. During the first round of the playoffs, the wild-card teams play the lowest-ranked division champions. The top two division winners in each league have byes during the first round. The losers are eliminated and the winners advance to play one of the remaining division champions in the semifinals. Semifinal winners advance to the conference finals, and the winner of that game is declared the conference champion. The Super Bowl is the final contest of the NFL's season. This contest pits the AFC and NFC champions against each other. The Super Bowl reaches hundreds of millions of viewers around the world. The first Super Bowl took place in 1967, when there were actually two separate football leagues, the NFL and the American Football League (AFL). In this game, the Green Bay Packers of the NFL defeated the Kansas City Chiefs of the AFL in what was called the AFL-NFL World Championship Game. The game was renamed the Super Bowl in 1969. Every April the NFL conducts its amateur draft, in which each team can select from the best college players. To determine the draft order the NFL goes by the win-loss records of the previous season, so that teams with poorer records draft earlier than those with better records. The NFL draft consists of seven rounds. Those players not selected in the draft can be invited to try out for a team and are sometimes signed to contracts as free agents. NFL rules stipulate that no player can be drafted until he is at least three years out of high school. In 2004 this rule was challenged in a lawsuit by a former college star, Ohio State University's Maurice Clarett, but the league prevailed and was able to keep Clarett and other young players out of the draft. The NFL is a big business for players, owners, advertisers, and other industries tied to the sport. NFL franchises generate huge revenues for host cities, in addition to promoting civic pride and national exposure. Thus, cities often compete for teams, offering prospective teams bigger and better stadiums, guaranteed fan support, and various economic incentives. In the 1980s three NFL teams relocated: the Oakland Raiders moved from Oakland, California, to Los Angeles in 1982; the Colts moved from Baltimore, Maryland, to Indianapolis, Indiana, and became the Indianapolis Colts in 1984; and the Cardinals moved from St. Louis, Missouri, to Phoenix, Arizona, and became the Phoenix Cardinals in 1988 (later changed to Arizona Cardinals). Several other moves occurred in the 1990s. In 1995 the Los Angeles Rams became the St. Louis Rams when they moved from Los Angeles to St. Louis, and the Raiders returned to Oakland. The Cleveland Browns moved to Baltimore, Maryland, in 1996; the team was renamed the Baltimore Ravens. In 1997 the Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee and became the Tennessee Titans. Other teams have agreed to stay in their home cities only with the promise of new facilities. New teams are periodically accepted into the NFL, and there is usually fierce competition among cities to be selected as the home for a new team. In 1995 two of these expansion teams began play: the Carolina Panthers, in Charlotte, North Carolina; and the Jacksonville Jaguars, in Jacksonville, Florida. A new Cleveland Browns franchise began play in 1999, and the Houston Texans joined the NFL in 2002. B Other Leagues Besides the NFL, other early professional football leagues in North America included the Canadian Football League (see Football, Canadian); the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), which played from 1946 to 1949; and the American Football League (AFL), which played from 1960 to 1969. The AAFC and the AFL ceased to exist when they merged with the NFL. From 1983 to 1985 the United States Football League (USFL) tried to compete with the NFL by playing in the spring and summer, but it folded after the 1985 campaign. In 1991 the World League of American Football was formed with the intention of fostering interest in American football and the NFL in Europe. The league had teams in European and North American cities, but suspended play after the 1992 season. It restarted in 1995 as NFL Europe, with teams only from European cities. NFL Europe has proved to be an effective training ground for prospective NFL players, offering valuable playing time that NFL teams cannot provide. In the late 1990s the Arena Football League gained increased popularity. The league, which began play in 1987, features high-scoring indoor football on a field half the length of an NFL field, with teams of eight players each. There are several other major differences between arena football and regulation NFL football. For example, punting is not allowed--on fourth down teams must go for a first down, a touchdown, or a field goal. Also, the fields have nets set up beyond both end zones. The defensive team can play a missed field goal off the net, and the receiving team on a kickoff can do the same. In addition, a forward pass that bounces off the net is in play until it hits the ground. In the year 2000, the popularity of arena football led to the formation of Arena Football 2, an expansion league. In early 2001 a new NFL rival, the Extreme Football League (XFL), began play. This league used different rules to make the game faster paced and more exciting, but poor television ratings caused it to fold after one season. IX HISTORY The forerunner of American football may have been a game played by the ancient Greeks, called harpaston. In this game there was no limit to the number of players. The object was to move a ball across a goal line by kicking it, throwing it, or running with it. Classical literature contains detailed accounts of the game, including its rougher elements, such as ferocious tackling. In medieval times a form of football known as calcio flourished in Italy. Natives of Polynesia are known to have played a variety of the game with a football made of bamboo fibers, and the Inuit played a form of football with a leather ball filled with moss. In the United States, a crude form of football using a blown-up bladder was played in the colony of Virginia in 1609. Most modern versions of football originated in England, where a form of the game was known in the 12th century. In subsequent centuries football became so popular that various English monarchs, including Edward II and Henry VI, forbade the game because it took interest away from the military sport of archery. At the beginning of the 19th century several types of the game--all permitting players to kick the ball but not carry it--were being played at various English schools, including Eton, Harrow, and Rugby. The modification of the game that permits carrying the ball was first introduced at Rugby in 1823 when one schoolboy disregarded the established rules, tucked the ball under his arm, and dashed across the goal line. At a formal meeting in 1863, the sport split into two distinct entities. Still popular today, these were soccer (a term that eventually came from the British name, "association football") and rugby. American football evolved from these two sports. The sport called soccer in the United States is still known as football throughout much of the world. A Early College Football Most football historians agree that the first organized football game took place on November 6, 1869, when teams from Rutgers and Princeton universities played in New Brunswick, New Jersey. In the early games, which resembled soccer more than today's football game, each team used 25 players at a time. By 1873 the number was reduced to 20 players, and by 1876 it was further reduced to 15 players. In 1880 Yale coach Walter Camp set the number at 11 players. He also created the quarterback position and the system of downs. In the early 1900s college football games were popular sports spectacles, but the professional game attracted limited public support. College games were extremely rough, and many injuries and some deaths occurred. Educators considered dropping the sport despite its popularity on campuses, and United States president Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent advocate of strenuous sports, declared that the game must be made safer. As a result, football authorities revamped the game, and many of the rougher tactics were outlawed. College coaches such as Amos Alonzo Stagg, Pop Warner, Bob Zuppke, and Knute Rockne developed many of the early offensive techniques and play formations. Following very few historical precedents, these men invented unique strategies that changed the nature of football forever. Stagg was instrumental in developing the between-the-legs snap from center to quarterback, the player in motion in the backfield before the snap of the ball, the onside kick, the early T-formation, and many other innovations. In 1906 Warner unbalanced his line, placing four players on one side of the center and two on the other side, while shifting the backfield into a wing formation. The quarterback functioned as a blocker, set close behind the line and a yard wide of the center. At the same depth, but outside the line, was the wingback. Deep in the backfield was the tailback, who received most of the snaps, and in front and to the side was the fullback. This formation became known as the single-wing, and it remained football's basic formation until the 1940s. Coach Zuppke ran single- and double-wing formations at the University of Illinois, often sending four or five receivers downfield in pass patterns. At the University of Notre Dame, Rockne instituted his famous Four Horsemen offense in 1923 and 1924. Rockne set up the backs in a four-square, box alignment on one side. Then, in what was called the Notre Dame Shift, the backs would shift out of the box and into a single or double wing. B Rise of the Professional Game The first professional football game in the United States took place in 1895 in the town of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between a team representing Latrobe and a team from Jeannette, Pennsylvania. In the following years many professional teams were formed, including the Duquesnes of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; the Olympics of McKeesport, Pennsylvania; the Bulldogs of Canton, Ohio; and the team of Massillon, Ohio. Noted college players who took up the professional game during its early years include Willie Heston (formerly at the University of Michigan), Fritz Pollard (Brown University), and Jim Thorpe (Carlisle Indian School). The first league of professional football teams was the American Professional Football Association, formed in 1920. The admission fee was $100 per team. The teams pledged not to use any student player who still had college eligibility left, as the goodwill of the colleges was believed to be essential to the survival of the professional league. Thorpe, a player-coach for one of the teams, became president of the league during its first year. The American Professional Football Association gave way in 1922 to the NFL. Red Grange, the famous halfback from the University of Illinois, provided a tremendous stimulus for the league when he joined the Chicago Bears in 1925. His exciting play drew large crowds. Thereafter, professional football attracted larger numbers of first-rate college players, and the increased patronage made the league more and more successful financially. Strategically, the early NFL game was hardly distinguishable from college football of the time. There was no attempt to break away from college playbooks or rulebooks, and for several years the NFL followed the NCAA Rules Committee recommendations. In the league's early years, players considered the low-paying NFL a part-time job and held other jobs during the day. Thus, while college coaches could drill their players daily for hours, professional football coaches arranged practices in the evenings, sometimes only three or four times a week. The popularity of the professional game slowly began to equal its college rival after the NFL instituted its first player draft in 1936. As many talented college players opted to play in the NFL, the professional game also drew more fans. The Chicago Bears, the Chicago Cardinals, the Detroit Lions, the Green Bay Packers, and the New York Giants were some of the league's dominant teams during the period. Outstanding players included running back Cliff Battles, quarterback Sammy Baugh, running back Tony Canadeo, and receiver Don Hutson. The Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II (1939-1945), however, drained many of the early professional franchises of money and players. After World War II, college teams were allowed free substitution of players--that is, a player could enter and leave the game an unlimited number of times, as long as the ball was not in play during the substitution. This feature of the game led to the modern two-platoon system, in which one group of 11 players enters the game to play offense and a second group enters to play defense. The trend toward platoons crossed over to the professional game. In 1946 the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) was established as a rival to the NFL. The new league included the New York Yankees, the San Francisco 49ers, the Baltimore Colts (now Indianapolis Colts), and the Los Angeles Dons. The most powerful team in the new league was the Cleveland Browns, coached by football innovator Paul Brown. Although talented, the quarterbacks of the 1930s and early 1940s seldom completed more than 50 percent of their passes. A major cause of these low percentages was the primitive nature of pass-blocking strategies. With little protection, passers always had to throw while avoiding incoming rushers. Brown installed a blocking system that radically transformed the passing game. He changed the system by arranging the linemen in the form of a cup that pushed most pass rushers to the outside and provided a safe area, called a pocket, from which the quarterback could pass. Using the strategy, Brown coached Cleveland to four AAFC championships from 1946 to 1949. In 1950 the Browns, 49ers, and Colts joined the NFL in a merger of the two leagues. The move ushered in a period of popularity and prosperity. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s players such as quarterbacks Norm Van Brocklin, Y. A. Tittle, and Johnny Unitas; receiver Tom Fears; running back Jim Brown; defensive back Tom Landry; linebacker Ray Nitschke; and all-around standout Frank Gifford ignited the league and attracted fans. During the period a select group of franchises won NFL championships, including Cleveland (1950, 1954, 1955), Detroit (1952, 1953, 1957), and Baltimore (1958, 1959). The advent of television helped to popularize the professional game when in 1956 the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) began to broadcast select games. C New Forces in the 1960s In 1960 the Packers reached the NFL championship game but lost to the Philadelphia Eagles. Nevertheless, the game signaled the rise of the Green Bay franchise under head coach Vince Lombardi. An intimidating and motivating individual, Lombardi led Green Bay to the NFL title the following year and added two more NFL championships in 1962 and 1965. Seeing that a profit could be made from professional football, Texas businessman Lamar Hunt formed the American Football League (AFL) in 1960 as a rival to the NFL. Teams in the new league included the Houston Oilers, the Kansas City Chiefs, the Oakland Raiders, and the New York Jets. The two leagues fought bitterly for players, media attention, and profits. Standouts in the new league such as Jack Kemp, Lance Alworth, and Joe Namath helped the AFL establish itself on par with the NFL. In 1966 the two leagues agreed on a merger plan. The first AFL-NFL World Championship Game, featuring the AFL-champion Chiefs and the NFL-champion Packers, was played in January 1967. The Packers won the contest, later renamed Super Bowl I, 35-10. In 1968 the Packers defeated the AFL's Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl II, but the game validated the AFL's talent. In 1969 the AFL's Jets defeated the Colts in a huge upset in Super Bowl III. In 1970 the leagues merged into two 13-team conferences under the NFL name. The Browns, Colts, and Pittsburgh Steelers joined the 10 AFL teams to form the AFC, and the remaining NFL teams formed the NFC. D The 1970s During the early 1970s offensive play suffered as result of complex defensive strategies. Three coaches in particular, Tom Landry of the Dallas Cowboys, Chuck Noll of the Steelers, and Don Shula of the Miami Dolphins, created defensive tactics that closed passing lanes and forced offenses to rely on running the ball. The shift resulted in defensive units with names such as the Doomsday Defense of the Cowboys, the Steelers' Steel Curtain, the Minnesota Vikings' Purple People Eaters, and the Los Angeles Rams' Fearsome Foursome. In 1972 Miami's unheralded defense teamed with a celebrated offense led by quarterbacks Bob Griese and Earl Morrall, and the Dolphins compiled a record of 14 wins and 0 losses--becoming the only team to finish a NFL regular season undefeated. Following their perfect season Miami won Super Bowl VII. In an attempt to maintain public interest in the game during the early 1970s, NFL administrators brought the hash marks in closer to the center of the field to give offenses more room to throw wide passes. The move, which increased scoring and made the game more exciting, also helped bolster the running game. In 1972 ten NFL runners gained more than 1,000 yards in one season for the first time in history. During the next season, Buffalo Bills running back O. J. Simpson rushed for more than 2,000 yards, the first time a player had gained that many yards in a single season. Quarterbacks such as the Cowboys' Roger Staubach and the Steelers' Terry Bradshaw quickly developed playing styles that took advantage of the openness of the field created by the rule change. Both quarterbacks developed aggressive passing attacks that depended on pinpoint accuracy. During the mid- to late 1970s and early 1980s, an intense rivalry between Dallas and Pittsburgh drew fans to the game. Pittsburgh won four Super Bowls (1975, 1976, 1979, 1980), while Dallas won in 1978. The Steelers' 1979 victory over the Cowboys in Super Bowl XIII is considered one of the most memorable games in the sport's history. Television continued to play a role in the popularization of the game, and in 1970 the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) created Monday Night Football, hosted by former quarterback Don Meredith and commentators Keith Jackson and Howard Cosell. After one season former NFL player Frank Gifford replaced Jackson. Each week during the regular season the show featured a popular matchup. It was an instant success and became one of television's longest-running sports programs. After Meredith and Cosell retired, a number of former NFL players served as announcers on the show, including Dan Dierdorf, Fran Tarkenton, O. J. Simpson, and Lynn Swann. E The 1980s The San Francisco 49ers were the dominant team of the 1980s, as quarterback Joe Montana keyed the team to four Super Bowl victories (1982, 1985, 1989, 1990). Montana, who benefited from good blocking protection, read defenses well and could pass while scrambling away from tacklers. His favorite receiver was Jerry Rice, who eventually became the NFL career leader in receptions and touchdown catches. The first three of San Francisco's titles came under head coach Bill Walsh, who was known for his offensive innovation. Other powerful teams during the 1980s included the Chicago Bears, the Washington Redskins, and the Raiders, who moved from Oakland to Los Angeles after the 1981 season, and back to Oakland in 1995. In the mid-1980s a new type of defensive player emerged. While speedy defensive backs covered equally fast wide receivers, a player called the rush linebacker emerged with one specialized duty: pressuring the quarterback. With no pass-coverage responsibilities, the fast and strong rush linebacker focused his attention on the quarterback and the running backs. The New York Giants' Lawrence Taylor, perhaps the best player of all time at this position, led New York to a Super Bowl victory in 1987. The late 1980s saw players pushing to improve their labor situation. In 1989 the threat of a lawsuit caused the NFL to change its original policy and allow college underclassmen to enter the draft. Juniors and third-year sophomores became eligible, and many college stars turned professional before exhausting their college eligibility. Free agency emerged in 1992 in a settlement of a lawsuit filed in 1987 by the NFL Players Association. The association was formed in 1956 when players began to demand improved conditions. The union brought the suit in 1987 on behalf of players seeking freedom of movement between teams. The NFL's Management Council initially objected to any form of free agency, so in 1987 veteran players held a three-game strike in protest. Now in place, free agency is accompanied by a salary cap that limits teams to a maximum annual player payroll. F The 1990s In the early 1990s quarterback Jim Kelly and running back Thurman Thomas led the Bills to four consecutive Super Bowl appearances (1991-1994). However, they lost them all. Dallas returned to the Super Bowl in 1993 behind running back Emmitt Smith and quarterback Troy Aikman. The pair led the Cowboys to Super Bowl victories that year and in 1994 and 1996. Outstanding coaches during the decade included Jimmy Johnson with the Cowboys and Mike Shanahan of the Denver Broncos, both of whom won back-to-back Super Bowls. Perhaps the greatest offensive players of the 1990s were running backs Smith and Barry Sanders of the Lions and quarterbacks Steve Young of the 49ers, Dan Marino of the Dolphins, John Elway of the Broncos, and Brett Favre of the Green Bay Packers. Sanders led the NFL in rushing several times and became the first running back to rush for more than 1,000 yards in ten consecutive seasons (1989-1998). Smith was named the Super Bowl most valuable player in 1994 and eventually became the all-time career rushing leader. Young led the NFC in passing during six seasons (1991-1994, 1996, and 1997) and led the 49ers to a Super Bowl victory in 1995. Marino became the NFL's all-time passing leader by passing for 61,361 yards and 420 touchdowns. Elway led the Broncos to five Super Bowl appearances between 1987 and 1999, winning in 1998 and 1999. Favre led the Packers to two Super Bowls in 1997 and 1998, winning the Super Bowl in 1997. All of these players had retired by the end of the decade, except for Smith, who retired in 2004, and Favre, who eclipsed Marino's touchdown and passing records in 2007. G Recent Developments The 21st century brought new teams to the circle of NFL champions, as the St. Louis Rams (2000), Baltimore Ravens (2001), New England Patriots (2002), and Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2003) each won their franchise's first Super Bowl title. The Indianapolis Colts won in 2006 for the first time since the Colts franchise moved to Indianapolis. The Patriots became a dominant team in the middle of the first decade, winning the championship in 2004 and 2005 to become just the second franchise to win the Super Bowl three times in four years (the Dallas Cowboys did it first in the 1990s). NFL stars in the first half of the decade included quarterbacks Peyton Manning of the Colts and Tom Brady of the Patriots; defensive players Jevon Kearse of the Titans and Ray Lewis of the Ravens; running backs Priest Holmes of the Chiefs, Edgerrin James of the Colts, and Marshall Faulk of the Rams; and receivers Terrell Owens of the Eagles, Randy Moss of the Minnesota Vikings, and Torry Holt of the Rams. By the second half of the decade, other stars who emerged were running backs Shaun Alexander of the Seattle Seahawks and LaDainian Tomlinson of the San Diego Chargers; quarterbacks Eli Manning of the New York Giants and Ben Roethlisberger of the Pittsburgh Steelers; and wide receivers Marvin Harrison and Reggie Wayne, both of the Colts, and Chad Johnson of the Cincinnati Bengals. Two of the NFL's career leading rushers, Emmitt Smith (18,355 yards, first all-time) and Jerome Bettis (13,294 yards, fifth all-time), announced their retirements at the end of the 2004 season. Bettis later reversed his decision, deciding to return for one more season with the Pittsburgh Steelers. He then helped the Steelers win their first championship title in more than 25 years, as Pittsburgh defeated the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XL, 21-10. The promise shown by Peyton Manning and Marvin Harrison of the Colts came to fruition in the 2006 season when the Colts finally beat their arch nemesis, the New England Patriots, in the playoffs and advanced to the Super Bowl in 2007. In Super Bowl XLI, Manning was named most valuable player (MVP) for his performance against the Chicago Bears. In 2007 the Patriots became the first team to go unbeaten in the regular season since the 1972 Miami Dolphins. The Patriots won all 16 of their regular season games and set a record for the most points scored, led by Tom Brady, who set the single-season touchdown record. But the Patriots' hopes of matching the Dolphins with a perfect season were dashed by the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII. Giants quarterback Eli Manning followed his brother Peyton in being named Super Bowl MVP. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.