Colleges and Universities.

Colleges and Universities. I INTRODUCTION Colleges and Universities, institutions of higher education that offer programs beyond the high school level. Colleges and universities provide necessary training for individuals wishing to enter professional careers. They also strive to develop students' creativity, insight, and analytical skills. By acquainting students with complex ideas in an intellectually stimulating environment, colleges and universities can provide unique opportunities for personal enrichment while also preparing students for future careers. Such diverse professions as engineering, teaching, law, medicine, and information science all require a college education. Most require training in graduate or professional school as well. Increasingly, even less specialized jobs require some postsecondary education. The development of new technologies and the globalization of the world economy have created high demand for workers with computer, communications, and other occupational skills that can be acquired at colleges or universities. For example, computers and other new technologies have eliminated many low-skilled jobs in a variety of fields, but these same technologies have created widespread job opportunities for those who have the proper training. In addition, employers increasingly seek out college graduates who have gained the critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary to adapt to changing economic conditions. Students who live away from home during their college or university years typically experience a major turning point in their lives that has little to do with academics or professional training. For example, college offers many recent high school graduates their first opportunity to live on their own. Most first-year students welcome this increased independence, although many also find that living away from home, family, and friends can introduce unexpected challenges. Campus residence halls provide common settings for students to form new bonds with peers who share similar experiences. Other students form social networks by joining student organizations or by participating in extracurricular activities. II TYPES OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES In the United States and Canada the terms college and university can describe a variety of institutions. A college may form one major division of a university, offering programs in a specific academic field that lead to undergraduate or graduate degrees, or both. Colleges may also be independent of a university, offering four-year programs of general education that lead to a bachelor's degree in the liberal arts and sciences. Some independent colleges offer a limited number of graduate programs, but usually their primary mission is to provide undergraduate education. Community colleges offer two-year programs of general education or vocational education. Universities generally comprise various colleges and professional schools that make up the academic divisions of the institution. For example, a university may include a college of arts and sciences in addition to professional schools of education, law, medicine, and engineering. Universities provide higher education leading to a bachelor's degree as well as professional and graduate programs leading to master's and doctoral degrees. Colleges and universities in the United States and Canada may be public institutions supported by federal, state, provincial, or municipal governments, or they may be private (independent) institutions. The most prominent types of colleges and universities in the United States and Canada include community colleges, state or provincial universities, liberal arts colleges, professional schools, military academies, and proprietary institutions. Other types include technical colleges, agricultural colleges, teachers' colleges, and colleges affiliated with religions. A Community Colleges Community colleges typically offer the first two years of general undergraduate education. Most also offer adult educational programs, vocational education, and technical training. Community colleges confer associate degrees for successful completion of most two-year programs. Many students in community colleges complete the first two years of their college education in these institutions and then transfer the credits to a four-year college. Other community college students pursue vocational, technical, and other preprofessional programs. Because community colleges typically have lower tuition rates than four-year colleges and universities, they offer significant advantages to many students. B Public Colleges and Universities Aside from a few four-year colleges supported by municipal governments or the federal government, most public colleges and universities in the United States are state institutions. In most cases, state boards of higher education provide funds for these schools and oversee their programs of instruction. Most state governments establish systems of higher education, such as the State University of New York System or the University of California System, which comprise groups of interconnected college or university campuses. State colleges and universities have diverse origins. Although some four-year institutions were originally established as state colleges and universities, many originated in the early 19th century as two-year teacher-training institutions known as normal schools. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries these schools were reorganized and expanded into four-year teachers' colleges. Later in the 20th century, another reorganization changed many teachers' colleges into comprehensive colleges and universities that offer a wide range of academic programs. Many other state educational institutions are land-grant colleges, established with funds from the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. These institutions were originally founded to offer education in agriculture, science, and engineering, but most later expanded their curriculums to become large multipurpose universities. Federally supported higher education in the United States is mainly associated with branches of the armed services. Federal military colleges include the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York; the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland; and the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado. These institutions provide comprehensive undergraduate programs in addition to defense training for prospective military officers. The federal government also operates the United States Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut, and the United States Merchant Marine Academy in Kings Point, New York. In Canada, provincial governments establish boards of higher education responsible for allocating funds to provincial universities and overseeing their programs of instruction. In addition, the federal and provincial governments provide substantial funds for all institutions of higher education, including private colleges and universities. This public funding dramatically reduces costs for students. C Independent Colleges and Universities Independent colleges and universities are private, nonprofit institutions. Many independent colleges and universities originated as church-related institutions, although a majority of these are no longer affiliated with religious groups. The most common independent colleges and universities include (1) liberal arts institutions that offer comprehensive undergraduate education, (2) technical or specialized institutions that prepare students in engineering, performing arts, music, nursing and other fields, and (3) large universities that include undergraduate programs in addition to graduate and professional schools. D Graduate and Professional Schools Professional schools are typically divisions of large universities. They offer specialized education in a variety of professional fields, such as education, business, medicine, law, social work, agriculture, journalism, architecture, fine arts, nursing, engineering, and music. Some professional schools offer four- or five-year programs leading to a bachelor's degree, as well as graduate programs leading to master's and doctoral degrees. Other professional schools--such as schools of medicine, law, and library science--usually offer only graduate study. For example, Harvard University offers undergraduate courses related to the study of law, but the Harvard Law School offers courses for study in professional degree programs. Many large universities include graduate schools that offer master's or doctoral degree programs for advanced study in such liberal arts and science fields as history, chemistry, physics, and literature. E Proprietary Institutions Proprietary institutions are private, for-profit, postsecondary institutions. They generally focus on preparing students for specialized careers in fields such as business, performing arts, commercial art, travel, music, fine arts, computer technology, and electronics. For example, the DeVry Inc./Keller Graduate School of Management operates several campuses of the DeVry Institute of Technology, a for-profit institution that offers courses of study in accounting, business, computer information systems, electronics, and telecommunications. Proprietary institutions often employ practicing professionals as part-time or adjunct instructors to offer training directly related to the field of specialization. III ADMINISTRATION The administration of a college or university provides the governing structure of the institution. Although each institution organizes its administration differently, nearly all colleges and universities have a board of trustees, a president, at least one vice president, deans of various divisions, and a number of academic departments. In addition, state college and university systems are governed by state boards of higher education. A State Boards of Higher Education State boards of higher education administer most public college and university systems in the United States. Each state governs its system of higher education differently, but most follow one of two basic patterns. In one pattern, all the institutions of higher education are part of one system governed by a single board, which is either appointed by the state governor or elected by the voters. In the other common pattern, the state board of higher education acts as a planning and coordinating agency, but gives a great deal of autonomy to the board of trustees of each institution. State boards of higher education generally review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each college or university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state. B Boards of Trustees Both public and private colleges and universities are governed by their own boards of trustees, although the boards of trustees at state institutions may be subordinate to the state's board of higher education. Boards of trustees establish and approve the institution's general governing policies. The chief functions of a board of trustees are to (1) approve or revise budgets for operating the institution, (2) appoint the president of the college or university, and (3) take part in ceremonies related to school events, such as graduations. At private institutions in particular, trustees also help raise funds for the college or university by soliciting philanthropists, foundations, alumni, and other sources. Members of boards of trustees are usually people who have achieved some distinction in business, science, the arts, or education. C Presidents The board of trustees appoints the college's or university's president, who acts as the institution's chief executive officer. Presidents usually have extensive academic experience as either college or university administrators. In some cases, they may be people of notable achievement outside of academic life. For example, General Dwight D. Eisenhower served as president of Columbia University in New York City from 1948 to 1950, after commanding the Allied forces in Europe during World War II (1939-1945). He was later elected the 34th president of the United States, in 1952. Presidents of colleges and universities enforce the policies, regulations, and other procedures that govern their institution. They also meet with the board of trustees and make recommendations to the board regarding the governance and policies of the school. They appoint and, if necessary, remove other officers of the institution, such as vice presidents or deans; they approve or disapprove new policies and procedures recommended by the institution's administrative and faculty committees; and they represent the college or university to the general public and to the institution's alumni. D Vice Presidents Depending on the size of the institution, a college or university will appoint a number of vice presidents to assist the president in running the school. The academic vice president is responsible for faculty appointments and dismissals and for approving or revising academic programs. Often the academic vice president is a former dean of a college or other academic division within the institution. The institution's financial and budgetary matters are the responsibility of the vice president for finance. The vice president for student services is responsible for nonacademic matters relating to students, such as operating counseling services, residence halls, and student activities and organizations. The vice president for human resources is responsible for nonfaculty appointments such as the hiring of secretaries and personnel to maintain the grounds and other facilities. E Deans The academic deans are the chief executives and administrators of the various colleges or other academic divisions of an institution. For example, at a large university, the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, the College of Education, and the School of Law each have a dean who is appointed by the president or the academic vice president. Frequently, deans have had experience as chairpersons of academic departments in the institution. The responsibilities of deans typically include implementing policies established by the board of trustees and the president; preparing the budgets and overseeing the spending of funds within the academic division; supervising the faculty; recommending faculty in their college or school to the academic vice president for appointment, promotion, tenure, or termination; and maintaining or increasing student enrollments in their college or school. F Academic Departments Most colleges and universities are organized into academic departments. For example, the faculty members who teach history are organized into the history department. These departments have a chairperson who is appointed by the academic vice president upon the recommendation of the dean of the college or school, usually in consultation with the department's faculty members. Chairpersons are generally senior professors in the department. Among the chairperson's responsibilities are organizing the schedules of courses offered by the department and assigning faculty to teach them; appointing new faculty members to the department, usually based upon recommendations of faculty search committees; evaluating faculty within the department on their teaching, research, and service for promotion, tenure, or termination; implementing university- or college-wide policies within the department; and presiding over meetings of the faculty members of the department. IV FACULTY In college and universities, the general roles of faculty are teaching, research, and service to the institution, the profession, and the community. The extent to which faculty are expected to fulfill any one of these roles depends upon how the particular institution defines its mission. For example, some colleges define their primary mission to be instructing undergraduate students. In these institutions, the primary responsibilities for faculty are to teach courses to students and to advise them in their academic programs. Faculty members may also serve as advisers to student organizations and as members of various college committees. Universities tend to be more multipurpose than colleges in their mission and functions. Since universities offer advanced study toward graduate and professional degrees, faculty are expected to do original research in their fields of academic specialization. They are also expected to publish their findings in scholarly books and journals so that scholars in other universities are aware of their work and contributions. Faculty members usually include the findings of their research in the courses they teach to students. Most faculty at large universities teach both undergraduate and graduate students. They advise students in their academic programs and direct graduate students in preparing their master's theses and doctoral dissertations. (A thesis or a dissertation is an extensive research paper usually required for the satisfactory completion of an advanced degree). In addition to their teaching and research responsibilities, faculty members serve on university, school, and departmental committees. They also are expected to be active members of professional societies and organizations in their academic field. For example, history professors are often members of the American Historical Association, while psychology professors are members of the American Psychological Association. After they are hired by a college or university, faculty members receive a faculty rank as part of their appointment. Those who are beginning their teaching career and have little previous experience enter the profession as either instructors or assistant professors. The rank of assistant professor is slightly higher than that of instructor. After an assistant professor has acquired some teaching experience, conducted research, published articles or books, and served on institutional and departmental committees, he or she is usually promoted to associate professor. Faculty members generally remain at the assistant professor level for approximately five years before being promoted to associate professor. At many institutions, the rank of associate professor carries tenure, meaning that the person cannot be dismissed from his or her teaching position unless there is a very serious reason. Colleges and universities established tenure to assure professors that they have the academic freedom to teach their ideas without interference or fear of losing their jobs. The highest rank of the faculty is full professor, sometimes simply called professor. Retired professors generally receive the rank of professor emeritus. To save money and to be able to quickly respond to changing trends in education, colleges and universities increasingly employ large numbers of part-time teachers who do not have faculty rank or tenure. Analysts estimate that nearly 30 percent of the faculty at four-year colleges and universities teach part-time. At community colleges, part-time teachers make up as much as 65 percent of the faculty. Part-time faculty often add special expertise to their teaching if they are practitioners in highly specialized fields such as medicine or law. However, many part-time faculty cannot find full-time teaching jobs, despite being qualified for those positions. Parttime faculty usually receive lower salaries than faculty with full-time positions, forcing many to teach at several colleges or universities in order to earn an adequate income. In addition, some universities employ large numbers of teaching assistants, who teach undergraduate courses while completing their doctoral degree programs. Critics believe that reliance on part-time faculty and teaching assistants decreases the quality of instruction. They argue that part-time faculty and teaching assistants generally lack the teaching experience and commitment to the institution that full-time faculty bring. V INSTRUCTION Colleges and universities strive to inform students of established principles of knowledge as well as of the most recent developments in academic research. Instruction takes place in classrooms, lecture halls, laboratories, and other settings. When students enroll in a course, professors provide them with a syllabus, or outline, of the course. The syllabus describes how the course will be taught. It includes a list of the required books and articles students are to read; the schedules and descriptions of course examinations, papers, and other assignments; and an explanation of methods used to evaluate or grade student performance. Methods of instruction may be a lecture, lecture-discussion, discussion, laboratory, seminar, internship, clinical experience, community service, distance education, or a combination of these and other formats. A Lecture The lecture method is the oldest approach to teaching in higher education. It originated in the earliest European universities during the 12th and 13th centuries. Before the introduction of the printing press in 1450, students had to create their own books by listening to lectures and writing down the words of their instructors. Today, faculty who use the lecture method typically speak to large numbers of students in a formal and very organized manner. The faculty member presents his or her description of the key ideas of a subject, and gives interpretations that often include current research on the issue. Following the presentation, lecturers sometimes invite students to ask questions on the material. B Lecture-Discussion Many faculty members employ a combination of lectures and small group discussions. In the lecture-discussion method, professors lecture to a large group of students and then divide the class into smaller discussion sections. Graduate teaching assistants, instructors, or assistant professors lead these small group discussions. They lead the discussion on the lecture topic, answer questions, and test the students with quizzes or exams. C Discussion Professors often use a discussion format of instruction in institutions that emphasize a high level of teacher-student interaction. In this teaching method, the professor meets with a small number of students and teaches the course by leading discussions with students. For example, the professor may present ideas and raise questions to stimulate debate or dialogue among the students. D Laboratory Sections Science courses typically include laboratory sections in which students conduct experiments that replicate or illustrate a scientific principle introduced in the course. Laboratory sections usually augment lectures or discussions. Foreign language courses also sometimes include laboratory sections in which students listen to audiotapes or use other interactive forms of instruction. E Seminars Seminars consist of small groups of students who meet with a professor to research or discuss a specific topic in history, literature, or some other academic field. For example, seminars in American literature might explore the novels of Nathaniel Hawthorne or the poetry of Maya Angelou. Seminars are more common in graduate programs. Participants in a seminar usually prepare scholarly research papers and critique one another's work. F Clinical Experiences and Internships Academic programs in professional fields such as social work or teacher education often require clinical experiences and internships. In these programs, students spend time at a clinic, agency, or school to observe the work of a professional in the field. In some cases the student may participate in the work as an aide. For example, teacher education programs require students to gain teaching experience in an elementary or secondary school. Social work programs may require students to participate at a local health clinic or other social service institution. G Community Service An increasing number of college and university programs require students to engage in a community service project as part of their degree program. To fulfill this requirement, students may assist in clinics, participate in reading programs at local schools, or volunteer at homeless shelters. Colleges and universities that require these programs consider community service an essential part of a well-rounded education. H Distance Education In addition to conventional methods of instruction conducted on campus, many colleges and universities offer distance education programs that use technology to carry instruction to students in off-campus locations. Distance education programs enable faculty and students to communicate with one another by using such technologies as computers, artificial satellites, radio, and television. These programs appeal to many institutions that wish to reduce costs, because the technology enables relatively few faculty members to teach a large number of students. Distance education also appeals to students who, for any number of reasons, cannot attend classes on campus. VI COURSES OF STUDY Most undergraduate degree programs require students to complete a concentration of courses, called a major, in a particular academic field such as history, biology, mathematics, business, or computer science. Majors require students to complete a significant, predetermined number of courses in that field. Typically, half the courses taken to complete a major are designed for upper-division (third- and fourth-year) students. Many colleges and universities encourage or require students to complete an academic minor as well as a major. A minor also requires a concentration of courses in a particular field, but with less stringent requirements. Some students broaden their course of study still further by pursuing two independent majors. Most colleges and universities also offer interdisciplinary majors or academic programs that allow students to take courses in a number of fields. For example, students who major in an international studies program may take courses in history, economics, political science, foreign language, and other fields. Other examples of interdisciplinary studies programs include environmental studies, women's studies, African American studies, peace studies, and ethnic studies. Graduate and professional degree programs typically require students to complete a set of courses in a specialized academic field. Most graduate degree programs require students to conduct original research in that field and to communicate their findings in an examination or in a long academic essay known as a thesis, or in a book-length work called a dissertation. In professional degree programs, students acquire practical knowledge and skills for careers in such areas as business, law, and medicine. VII STUDENT LIFE Because each college or university features a different campus environment, the day-to-day life of students varies widely from one school to another. The following sections describe some of the most common features of student life at four-year colleges and universities. A Housing Students live in a variety of settings at four-year colleges and universities, depending on the regulations of the institution and its location. Some institutions require that undergraduate students live in college- or university-approved housing, especially during their first and second years. At other institutions, students may live either on or off campus. Off-campus housing may be in privately owned or independently operated boarding houses, apartments, or rooms. Some students organize their own cooperative living arrangements and jointly rent apartments or houses to reduce housing and food expenses. Most students who live on campus live in residence halls owned and operated by the college or university. These facilities, also known as dormitories or dorms, may be restricted to a single sex occupancy or they may be coeducational. Residence halls are generally operated under the jurisdiction of the institution's division of student services. Older students usually serve as residence hall counselors and supervisors, often in return for free living arrangements. Residence halls usually have their own student governing organizations that set rules and procedures for the facilities. They also may provide food service in dining rooms and cafeterias. Some colleges and universities allow students to live in fraternity or sorority houses on or near the campus. Fraternities (for male students) and sororities (for female students) are generally part of national associations with long histories and traditions. Most fraternity and sorority houses provide housing for only a portion of their members. Some offer dining services within their facilities. See Fraternities and Sororities. B Food Services Students who live on campus may eat meals in their residence hall, in campus cafeterias, or in other campus dining rooms. Most colleges and universities have buildings--often called student unions--that provide a variety of services, including food service in dining rooms and cafeterias. Students who live off campus provide their own dining arrangements, but they usually may also eat in campus dining rooms and cafeterias. C Student Services Colleges and universities provide a wide range of services to students. Many provide student health services in clinics staffed by health care professionals. Most schools also offer student health insurance that helps pay medical costs, if needed. An increasing number of colleges and universities offer day-care facilities for students and faculty with children. Colleges and universities usually provide learning centers to assist students who are experiencing difficulties in their classes. These facilities offer tutoring and remedial education in areas where the student is experiencing difficulty. Counseling services are also available for students dealing with personal difficulties, including substance abuse and eating disorders. Career placement centers provide help in making career decisions and finding jobs after completing college. Colleges and universities affiliated with religious groups generally sponsor regular religious services that are a central aspect of campus life. These schools also have ministers, priests, rabbis, or other campus ministry personnel available to counsel and advise students. Although public institutions in the United States and Canada are secular (nonreligious), there are usually churches and religious organizations available in the vicinity of the campus. D Extracurricular Activities Colleges and universities offer a range of extracurricular activities that can enhance the overall experience of college students. Most schools feature intercollegiate athletic programs in various sports for both male and female students. Large universities typically have programs in football, basketball, soccer, volleyball, tennis, swimming, track, and other sports. Intercollegiate sporting events are also popular attractions for other students and alumni to attend as spectators. In addition to intercollegiate athletics, most four-year colleges and universities offer students opportunities to participate in a variety of intramural sports. College and university students may also participate in student government or serve on various institutional committees. The student government advocates student concerns to the school faculty and administration, and offers employment or volunteer opportunities for students. Some student governments also provide other services for students, such as operating counseling services, organizing student housing committees, and overseeing student support networks. Student governments generally allocate funds to various student organizations such as newspapers, drama groups, and film societies. E Problems of Student Life Colleges and universities have many of the same problems found in the larger society, such as violence and crime, and alcohol, drug, and sexual abuse. School policies try to govern these problems and reduce their effects. For example, policy guidelines provide protection for students against sexual harassment by faculty and other students. Many schools have also introduced policies aimed at eliminating the widespread problem of binge drinking, in which students consume dangerous amounts of alcoholic drinks at campus parties. Colleges and universities have also instituted policies against date rape, in which female students are sexually attacked by acquaintances or dates. To enforce these and other policies, colleges and universities maintain their own security personnel to provide police protection on campus. VIII ADMISSIONS Although admission requirements vary from one institution to another, most share a few common features. Nearly all colleges require students to submit transcripts of grades from high school and scores on standardized tests. They also generally require a completed application form, written essays that reflect accomplishments and goals, and letters of recommendation from teachers who are familiar with the applicant's academic background. In addition, some colleges require an interview with college officials, either on campus or by telephone. A Application Forms Colleges and universities require applicants to complete an official application form obtained from the institution's admissions office. The application indicates the amount of the application fee, the deadline for submitting the application, and the standardized tests required for admission. The application also explains whether essays and interviews are required, and how to obtain and submit letters of recommendation. Students must carefully read these forms and follow all instructions to ensure that they receive full consideration for admission. B Standardized Tests Most schools require applicants to submit their scores on either the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) or the American College Test (ACT) as part of the application process. Colleges and universities use these scores to help predict a student's future success in higher education. High school students usually take these examinations in their junior year or early in their senior year. Graduate schools generally require applicants to submit scores on the Graduate Record Exam (GRE), a standardized test for admission to postgraduate degree programs. In addition, many graduate schools require a GRE subject test, which assesses an applicant's knowledge of a specialized field of study. C Application Essay Some colleges, especially more competitive ones, require applicants to write an essay as part of the application process. Admissions officials use the essay to help assess the applicant's abilities in areas that may not be adequately measured by high school grades or standardized test scores. Students can use the essay to demonstrate their creativity, maturity, and ability to communicate. They also can show how they might approach a particular topic or problem. In writing the essay, applicants typically highlight academic, extracurricular, and other achievements or interests. They also generally indicate why they are applying to the particular college and how they would fit into the life there. D Personal Interview Relatively few colleges require a personal interview, but most recommend that students visit the campus and meet with members of the admissions staff. Sometimes an applicant may also meet with a faculty member. Interviews with an admissions officer allow the admissions officer to further evaluate the applicant's strengths. In addition, they offer the applicant an opportunity to ask questions about the institution and to demonstrate personal communication skills. E Campus Visits Before making a decision about which college to attend, most applicants find it useful to visit one or more schools, meet with admissions personnel, and take guided tours of the campus. Most colleges and universities arrange such visits and encourage prospective students to visit classes and various extracurricular activities to get an idea of the style of life and learning at the particular institution. IX ENROLLMENT Enrollment figures in U.S. and Canadian higher education rose steadily throughout most of the 20th century. This was due in part to government assistance programs, such as the GI Bill of Rights (1944) that provided education allowances to U.S. veterans of World War II (1939-1945). Enrollment at colleges and universities also increased as a result of rising graduation rates from high schools, increases in the proportion of high school graduates entering college, and an expanding percentage of college graduates who continued their studies in graduate school. In the 1995-1996 academic year, 14.3 million students were enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States. Of these, 5.8 million were enrolled in public fouryear institutions, 5.3 million in public two-year institutions, 3 million in private four-year institutions, and 215,000 in private two-year institutions. Undergraduate students made up 86 percent of enrollment in U.S. colleges and universities, while graduate students made up 12 percent and students in professional programs made up 2 percent. In Canada, enrollment at colleges and universities for the 1995-1996 academic year totaled 966,000 students. Of these, 577,000 students were enrolled at four-year colleges and universities, and 389,000 students were enrolled at two-year community colleges. Undergraduate students made up 88 percent of the enrollment at Canadian colleges and universities, while the remaining 12 percent were enrolled in graduate or professional programs. X TUITION The cost of attending colleges and universities has steadily increased since the 1980s. At that time, some states began to reduce the percentage of their budget devoted to higher education because they had to meet rising costs for Medicare, transportation, prisons, and other public services. Most public institutions have raised tuition rates to compensate for this loss of funds. Meanwhile, both public and private institutions have had to meet increased expenditures for faculty and staff salaries, construction, and general operations. Since private institutions in the United States do not receive public funds, they generally charge students higher tuition and fees than do public institutions. In Canada, public and private institutions usually charge comparable tuition and fees because the provincial and federal governments subsidize student costs for both types of institutions. In the United States, the average tuition with room and board at a four-year public college for in-state residents during the 1978-1979 academic year was $1,994. By the 1996-1997 school year, the figure had reached $7,331. At private four-year schools, tuition, room, and board nationwide increased from an average of $4,514 to an average of $18,476. In Canada, the cost of higher education varies significantly from one province to another. In the 1996-1997 academic year tuition fees (without room and board) at four-year institutions ranged from $1,170 in Quebec to more than $2,800 in Nova Scotia. Tuition fees at private four-year colleges and universities in Canada range from about $2,800 to $5,700. More than 10 percent of full-time college students work full-time to pay for their college education. Most others work part-time to help offset the costs of attending college. However, higher tuition and a decline in the purchasing power of minimum wage jobs have made it increasingly difficult for students to pay for college by working part-time. To provide some assistance in financing higher education costs, a number of states have established programs that allow families to prepay college tuition years in advance by purchasing special contracts or tax-exempt bonds. XI FINANCIAL AID Students may apply for and receive financial aid to help pay tuition and other costs of attending college. The chief sources of financial aid are federal programs, state grant programs, private grants, and institutional sources at the college or university. Aid may be either a grant based on financial need, a merit-based financial award given to the student, or a loan that the student must repay with interest in the future. In the past, most students received financial aid in the form of a grant. However, the increases in tuition rates since the 1980s have coincided with a decrease in the funds available for public or private grants. More of the financial aid that most students now receive comes in the form of a loan rather than a grant or an award. For example, in the late 1980s the average grant was 46 percent of a typical student's total aid package, while the average federal loan was 52 percent. By 1998 the grant size had fallen to 40 percent of the typical total, while loan size had increased to 58 percent. In 1997 borrowers who attended public four-year colleges had accumulated an average of $13,000 in debts. Those who went to private colleges averaged $17,500 in debts. Borrowers in graduate school had an average debt of $24,500, and those who went to professional school averaged $48,500. XII DEGREES Requirements for the completion of academic degrees vary from one institution to another. The most common degree in the United States is the bachelor's degree, which is usually conferred at the completion of a four-year program of study. Bachelor's degrees usually represent the completion of course requirements in a major field of study and frequently in a minor field as well. Bachelor's degrees are awarded in the liberal arts and sciences, education, business, and other fields. The bachelor's degree may be a bachelor of arts (B.A.) or bachelor of science (B.S.) degree, depending on the major course of study completed by the student. For example, a chemistry major would receive a B.S. degree, whereas a history major would receive a B.A. degree. A student may pursue a master's degree after completion of a bachelor's degree. Master's degree programs typically require at least one year of study to complete a specified number of graduate-level courses in a specialized field of study. Students pursuing a master's degree must usually also pass some sort of comprehensive examination or complete a project. Master's degree exams may be written or oral, or a combination of both. Many master's degree programs require satisfactory completion of a written thesis. Master's degrees are usually either master of arts (M.A.) or master of science (M.S.) degrees, depending on the field of specialization. Doctorates are the highest degrees conferred by universities. Most doctoral degrees are the doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) degree, although recipients of this degree may have studied any number of academic fields other than philosophy. Admission to doctoral programs requires completion of an undergraduate degree program and usually, but not always, of a master's degree program. Students pursuing a doctorate must take a specified number of advanced graduate-level courses, requiring at least two or three years of study beyond the master's degree. Upon passing written or oral examinations, or a combination of both, doctoral students are granted the status of doctoral candidates. At that point they must research and write a dissertation on an original topic, and then successfully defend the dissertation before a committee of professors in the field. Requirements for professional degree programs vary widely, depending on the field of specialization. Most law and business degrees require two years of advanced study, while medical degrees typically require four years. See Legal Education; Business Education; Medical Education. In the academic year 1995-1996, U.S. colleges and universities awarded over 1.1 million bachelor's degrees, 397,000 master's degrees, 44,000 doctorates, and 75,000 professional degrees. Canadian institutions awarded over 150,000 bachelor's and professional degrees, 21,000 master's degrees, and 3,000 doctorates. XIII ACCREDITATION Colleges and universities gain accreditation when an organization or agency determines that they have met certain predetermined standards of educational quality. Most accreditation agencies in the United States are recognized by either the U.S. Department of Education or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation, an independent association. In Canada, colleges and universities are accredited by professional regulating agencies, governmental organizations, or private associations. Accrediting agencies assess the educational quality of colleges and universities by determining whether they have effective academic programs, qualified faculty members, adequate instructional and library facilities, and sufficient resources to provide satisfactory education. Once an accrediting agency grants a college or university accreditation, it reassesses the school periodically to determine whether the school has maintained adequate standards. XIV HISTORY Modern colleges and universities evolved from Western European institutions of the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century). However, significant types of higher learning existed in ancient times, in the Middle East and the Far East as well as in Europe. Some of these institutions still flourish. A Historical Antecedents Higher education in ancient Greece began at the Academy, established in about 387 offered advanced study of philosophy. Also beginning in the 4th century museum and to the great Library of Alexandria. From about 70 AD BC, BC by Plato, and at the Lyceum, founded in 335 BC by Aristotle. Both institutions the Egyptian city of Alexandria attracted scholars from Greece and the Middle East to its through the 13th century, scholars at Jewish academies in Palestine and Babylonia produced the Talmud, a text that promoted religious and secular intellectual pursuits. Beginning in about the 5th century AD, Indian and Chinese students studied Buddhism in Nalanda, a community of scholars in northern India. Institutions of higher education flourished in China beginning in the 7th century and in Korea from the 14th century. Al Azhar University, founded in the 10th century in Cairo, Egypt, is the central authority for Islamic learning and is still one of the most prominent universities in the Middle East. B Medieval Universities Western European universities developed as students migrated to various places where noted teachers lectured on particular subjects. Students migrating from the same country often banded together into groups. From these communities developed the concept of the college, from the Latin collegium, meaning "society." In the later part of the 12th century the University of Paris had emerged as a leading center for theology and philosophy, and it became the model for universities established later in northern Europe. The University of Bologna in Italy became famous for the study of law and set the pattern for Italian and Spanish universities. The University of Salerno, also in Italy, became the leading center for the study of medicine. Beginning in the 12th century, universities were also established in England, Germany, Bohemia, and Poland. Medieval universities offered a liberal arts curriculum, which then consisted of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the quadrivium (music, astronomy, geometry, and mathematics). After completing the liberal arts, some students went on to the professional studies of theology, law, or medicine. Only a very small number of men attended universities in the medieval period; women were not admitted. Most of the students and professors were members of religious orders and worked as clerics. Instruction consisted of lectures conducted in Latin, the universal language of Europe at the time. Usually a professor read an important text to students, who copied it. After a student completed his studies, and then wrote and defended a thesis or dissertation, he would be awarded either a master or doctor of philosophy degree. C Renaissance Through the 18th Century During the Renaissance, a period of European history that began in Italy during the late 14th and 15th centuries, scholars demonstrated a revived interest in ancient Greek and Latin languages and literature. Medieval universities also had focused on these classical studies, but the emphasis in the Renaissance turned to the humanistic importance of Greek and Latin scholarship. Scholars in the Renaissance were interested less in the religious meaning of classical literature, focusing instead on what the literature stated about life on earth. However, following the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century, religious doctrines became the central subjects of higher education. Many universities and colleges during this period were controlled by either Catholic or Protestant churches. They emphasized theological studies and trained priests and ministers as well as lawyers and physicians. D Colonial North America During the early 17th century the colonists of North America brought their conceptions of higher education with them from Europe. These ideas were shaped by the liberal arts tradition of the medieval universities, by the classical humanism of the Renaissance, and by the religious reforms of the Reformation. British colonists modeled their colleges on Oxford and Cambridge, the leading English universities. French Catholic groups established the first colleges in Canada, beginning in 1635 with the Collège des Jésuites in Québec. In 1636, soon after they immigrated to North America from England, the Puritans established Harvard College to prepare ministers for the community. The school followed a traditional liberal arts curriculum, emphasizing the study of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and theology. Gradually, other colleges were established in North America, including the College of William and Mary in Virginia in 1693, Yale in Connecticut in 1701, Princeton in New Jersey in 1746, and King's College (later renamed Columbia University) in New York in 1754. Although most colleges in colonial North America were directly influenced by English universities, many eventually borrowed from Scottish traditions of higher education as well. Scottish universities generally offered more mathematics and science programs than were offered by most English universities. The strong mathematics and science programs in Scotland attracted such American students as Benjamin Rush, who studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. Upon returning to North America in 1769, Rush helped form the earliest American medical education programs at the College of Philadelphia, a division of the University of Pennsylvania. Scottish immigrants to North America also worked to establish colleges based on Scottish universities such as those in Saint Andrew, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. After the United States won its independence from England in 1783, the states that made up the new country began to establish state colleges. For example, the University of Georgia was founded in 1785, the University of North Carolina in 1789, the University of Tennessee in 1794, and the University of South Carolina in 180l. E 19th Century The University of Virginia, founded under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson in 1819, marked the beginning of the modern style of state university organization, control, and curriculum. Jefferson wanted the University of Virginia to be free from church control and to promote citizenship and scientific progress. Following Jefferson's guidelines, the university (1) was publicly supported and controlled, (2) was a secular rather than religious institution, (3) featured a modern and scientific curriculum while also offering traditional or classical programs, and (4) offered students the opportunity to follow several alternative courses of study rather than one prescribed curriculum. These features were later incorporated by other universities that were established and maintained by state governments, including Indiana University (1820) and the University of Wisconsin (1848). In addition to the state colleges and universities, many church-related colleges were established by various denominations during the 19th century. Baptists, Christian Disciples, Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Methodists, Mormons, Presbyterians, Quakers, Roman Catholics, and other denominations all founded institutions of higher education in various parts of the country. F Land-Grant Colleges By the mid-19th century, many public leaders expressed dissatisfaction with the classical liberal arts curriculum taught at most American colleges and universities. They argued that science and technology should be much more prevalent in higher education. In 1857 Justin S. Morrill, then a member of the United States House of Representatives from Vermont, introduced a bill to address this perceived deficiency. The Morrill Act, which Congress enacted in 1862, granted each state public lands to be used to support a state-maintained agricultural and mechanical (A&M) college or university. The institutions founded under the Morrill Act came to be known as land-grant colleges. The second Morrill Act, passed in 1890, provided federal funds for agricultural and mechanical colleges and universities. These funds were provided especially to establish all-black institutions in states that prohibited African Americans from attending existing land-grant colleges. Among the land-grant universities established under the Morrill Acts were the University of Maine (1865), the University of Illinois (1867), the University of California (1868), the University of Arkansas (1871), and the University of Hawaii (1907). Today land-grant colleges and universities are large, multipurpose institutions that offer a full range of liberal arts and professional studies in addition to agricultural and engineering programs. G Research Universities In the late 19th century some universities in the United States and Canada were influenced by German research universities in Berlin, Göttingen, Bonn, and Munich. In the German institutions, professors highly trained in their academic specialties conducted original research in seminars with their graduate students. Many of these professors and students produced influential scholarly books and articles. Several American and Canadian graduate students attended German research universities and, upon returning to their own countries, introduced the seminar and the scholarly research method to American higher education. Examples of universities founded as research institutions include Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876, and the University of Chicago, founded in 1891. H 20th Century In the early decades of the 20th century, many colleges and universities in the United States and Canada grew much larger and served a greater variety of purposes. While most colleges of the 19th century focused on teaching a fixed curriculum of classical languages and literature, in the early 20th century newer multipurpose research universities gained increasing influence in American higher education. Most public institutions began to provide a wider variety of specialized professional training. Meanwhile, private liberal arts colleges generally lacked the resources to expand so dramatically. They became rededicated to their mission of providing a core curriculum of traditional Western studies. Promoting themselves as alternatives to large universities, many liberal arts colleges defined themselves as small institutions that value faculty teaching skills more than faculty research accomplishments. After World War II (1939-1945) higher education in the United States and Canada experienced unprecedented growth as colleges and universities enrolled students from groups that traditionally had not pursued an education beyond high school. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, popularly known as the GI Bill, was largely responsible for expanding college enrollments in the United States. The bill required the federal government to provide funds for tuition, fees, books, and supplies for veterans, and that it help pay their living expenses while they attended college. The bill allowed participating veterans to attend the accredited college of their choice, provided they met the institution's admission requirements. From 1944 through 1951, over 2 million U.S. veterans used the benefits from the GI Bill to attend colleges or universities. With the large number of veterans in colleges and universities, the institutions needed to expand their buildings, libraries, laboratories, and other facilities. This growth continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s. In Canada, the Veterans' Rehabilitation Program also provided assistance for veterans of World War II to enter colleges and universities. More than 50,000 former servicemen and servicewomen used benefits from this program to attend institutions of higher education. From 1965 to 1972 student activism dominated life on many college and university campuses. Students at the University of California at Berkeley began a free speech movement in 1965 to protest what they regarded as unjustified university-imposed limitations on their freedom of speech and their right to organize. At many colleges and universities, a student organization called Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) organized demonstrations, teach-ins, and sit-ins to protest United States involvement in the Vietnam War (1959-1975) and other issues. College demonstrations reached an unprecedented level of violence in 1970 at Kent State University in Ohio, when four students were killed by national guard troops who fired into a crowd of student demonstrators and bystanders. Since the 1970s, social and political protests have been rare at colleges and universities. Rather than publicly demonstrate their views on social or political issues, most students have been more concerned with earning degrees that offer a promise of financial security. However, during the 1980s students at many colleges and universities protested their schools' investments in South African companies because they opposed South Africa's policies of racial segregation, known as apartheid. During the early and mid-1990s some students demonstrated against matters such as college tuition rate hikes and U.S. involvement in the Persian Gulf War (1991), but these issues failed to galvanize widespread student protest. XV CURRENT ISSUES Because colleges and universities perform such a wide variety of roles, some educators complain that their institutions are expected to meet the needs of too many competing interests. For example, business and government leaders count on colleges and universities to provide occupational training for individuals to enter professional and public life. However, most people also expect colleges and universities to provide students with a broad-based liberal arts foundation of learning that may have no direct vocational application. Accordingly, some critics of the curriculum offered by contemporary institutions of higher education argue for the establishment of educational standards that would integrate academic and vocational objectives. Others defend the separation of academic and vocational curriculums. Admissions standards at colleges and universities have become controversial among educators and students alike. Although some institutions of higher education in the United States and Canada have highly selective admissions standards, others admit virtually any high school graduate able to meet minimum academic requirements. Many educators feel that every student should complete high school and that everyone desiring access to higher education should have an opportunity to pursue a college degree. However, critics of lax admissions standards argue that admitting large numbers of students who are academically unprepared for a college education often compromises the quality of the institution. Moreover, from the 1970s to the 1990s grade point averages have risen steadily at nearly all U.S. and Canadian colleges and universities, causing many educators and even some students to complain that academic standards are too low. Since passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, colleges and universities in the United States have waged contentious debates over policies intended to diversify the racial composition of students and faculty. These policies influence student admission guidelines, financial aid distribution, and faculty hiring procedures by giving some preference to historically underrepresented minority groups. In the 1990s several judicial decisions began to repeal affirmative action programs at state-controlled universities. These decisions also imposed legislation to prohibit race-based preferences in college admissions, financial aid, and hiring. These decisions have far-reaching consequences and potentially impact the efforts of all colleges and universities to achieve racial diversity while complying with the law. In addition to calls for a more diverse student body and faculty, many educators and students advocate a more diverse undergraduate curriculum at colleges and universities. Arguing that traditional college curriculums focus too much on the history and culture of white males, they advocate a more multicultural curriculum that does not ignore women and minority cultures. Others contend that advocates of a multicultural curriculum are constrained by their own narrow ideological perspectives, and that they have disdain for traditional moral, intellectual, and aesthetic judgment. These traditionalists argue for an undergraduate curriculum that emphasizes a core of knowledge that lies within the Western cultural tradition. Most colleges and universities in the United States and Canada offer some courses that focus on traditional Western culture in addition to others that explore multicultural themes. Contributed By: Gerald L. Gutek Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.