dharma in Hinduism and Buddhism

From the Sanskrit verb dhri, which means "to sustain." Dharma is the order that sustains the universe. Although it always retains this root meaning, it is used somewhat differently in HINDUISM and BUDDHISM. HINDU DHARMA In Hinduism, dharma refers to all forms of order. Thus, it can refer to the regular cycles of the sun. But in religious terms dharma refers most specifi cally to the moral standard by which human actions are judged. The impact of this standard is very broad ranging. At its most universally human, dharma is sometimes said to be the Hindu equivalent of the English word "religion." Starting perhaps in the second century B.C.E., dharma was systematized in books known as Smritis or Dharmasastras, the most famous is the Laws of MANU. These books recognize that different dharmas or ideals of behavior are appropriate to different groups of people. It is customary to identify these ideals in terms of the varna or RITUAL class into which one is born (see CASTE IN HINDUISM), the asrama or stage of life in which one fi nds oneself, and, although it is not often stated, one's gender. Technically, the stages of life apply only to males of the highest three varnas: BRAHMINS, kshatriyas, and vaisyas. In youth boys should study the VEDA. In maturity they should marry, support a household, perform the household rituals, and have children, especially sons. In old age they should retire. Some choose yet a fourth stage, a life of total renunciation. The traditional ideal for women stresses their subservience to men: in youth to their fathers, in maturity to their husbands, and as widows to their sons. This ideal has often made life very hard for Indian women. Nevertheless, powerful and independent women have emerged in every period of Indian history. BUDDHIST DHARMA Buddhism rejected the ritual classes of Hindu dharma. Indeed, it rejected Hindu rituals altogether. In Buddhism, dharma was originally identifi ed with the BUDDHA's teaching. Then it became the teachings of Buddhism in general. With this meaning it appears as one of Buddhism's three jewels. An example is the formula, "I take refuge in the Buddha; I take refuge in the SANGHA; I take refuge in the Dharma." Buddhist dharma is summarized in the Buddha's FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS. For THERAVADA Buddhists the teachings of Buddhism make up a large collection of books in the Pali language known as the Tipitika or "Three Baskets." These "baskets" or collections are the basket of the Buddha's sermons (dharma, properly speaking), the basket of the monastic discipline, and the basket of philosophical speculation known as "abhi-dharma." In MAHAYANA BUDDHISM, which is found especially in east Asia, the word dharma sometimes takes on an even broader sense. The "three-body doctrine" identifi es three different bodies (Kaya) of the Buddha or three different manifestations of the Buddhist dharma. They are the earthly (nirmanakaya), heavenly or "enjoyment" body (sambhogakaya), and absolute (dharmakaya). The historical Buddha is the ideal form in which the dharma appears in our world. But it is not the highest form of dharma. The heavenly body refers to the most excellent manifestations of dharma possible in worlds of name and form. In other words, it refers to the Buddhas and BODHISATTVAS who live in the various HEAVENS. Beyond name and form is the dharma body itself. In this body the dharma underlies and sustains all that is.