Buddhism
Publié le 22/02/2012
Extrait du document
A religion that traces its history back
to the BUDDHA, Siddhartha Gautama (c. 560–c. 480
B.C.E.). Buddhism is widely practiced throughout
southeast and east Asia. It also has strong traditional
ties to Tibet (see TIBETAN RELIGION). In the 20th
century small but vigorous Buddhist communities
were established in North America and Europe.
HISTORY
Siddhartha Gautama is said to have discerned
the path that leads to release from suffering and
rebirth (SAMSARA) at the age of 35. He lived almost
to the age of 80. During his last 45 years he traveled
widely in India, teaching and organizing the
community of wandering ascetics (see SANGHA).
By the time of his death or, as Buddhists prefer to
say, his parinirvana (see NIRVANA), Buddhism was
fi rmly established.
During the next 1,200 years, Buddhism spread
beyond India in three major waves. The fi rst wave,
associated with the famed emperor of India, ASOKA,
began in the third century B.C.E. The dominant
form of Buddhism at that time was Theravada,
"The Teachings of the Elders." This school adheres
to the letter of Siddhartha's teaching. Carried along
the oceanic trade routes southeast of India, Theravada
became the dominant form of Buddhism in
Sri Lanka, Myanmar (formerly known as Burma),
Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia (also known as
Kampuchea).
The second major wave of Buddhist expansion
began roughly in the second century C.E. By
this time Mahayana or "Great Vehicle" Buddhism
had become dominant. Mahayana does not adhere
strictly to the Buddha's words. It strives instead to
recover the Buddha's experience of enlightenment.
Carried along the land trade routes from northwest
India, Mahayana became the dominant form of
Buddhism in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
The third wave of expansion began in the seventh
century and carried Buddhism to Tibet and
surrounding areas. The form of Buddhism that
became dominant in these regions is Vajrayana,
"Diamond Vehicle." It emphasizes the special powers
of RITUALS, diagrams, and objects.
In India itself Buddhism virtually died out.
First it succumbed to a Hindu revival movement
centered on devotion to various gods that began
about the eighth century C.E. This movement,
known as BHAKTI, took lay supporters away from
Buddhism. Then, starting in the 12th century
Muslim invaders pillaged monasteries and convents
and forced MONKS AND NUNS to abandon the
order. Indian Buddhism began to revive, however,
toward the end of the 19th century. During the
20th century some North Americans and Europeans
became very interested in Buddhism (see BUDDHISM
IN AMERICA).
BELIEFS
Although one sometimes hears that Buddhists are
atheists, this is not quite correct. Buddhism does
not generally deny the truth of other religions;
instead, it tries to supplement another truth with a
truth of its own. As a result, Buddhists often WORSHIP
the gods that their non-Buddhist neighbors
worship. But in Buddhism it is ultimately more important to follow the Buddhist path than to worship
gods.
One follows the Buddhist path to redress the
root problem that all sentient or conscious beings
face: suffering (see FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS). Buddhism
blames suffering, along with bondage to the world
of ordinary existence and rebirth (samsara), on
ignorance. Two kinds of ignorance are most important.
The fi rst kind leads people to think and act as
if they are eternal, unchanging selves or souls. The
second leads people to think and act as if things
persist, when in fact, Buddhism teaches, absolutely
nothing at all is eternal and unchanging.
Ignorance of the truths of "no self" and "impermanence"
leads to attachment and craving, and they
in turn lead to suffering. To obtain release from
suffering (nirvana), a person must overcome ignorance.
That requires an intellectual acknowledgment
of Buddhist truths, but it also requires much
more. It requires a total transformation of one's
thought, action, and experience.
There are paradoxes hidden in these basic
truths of Buddhism, and Mahayana thinkers explored
them. If one practices Buddhism to achieve
nirvana, is one not craving nirvana? Again, if one
practices Buddhism to achieve nirvana, is one
not acting as if one had a self that could achieve
release? Moreover, if one accepts Buddhist teachings
as true, are they not eternal and unchanging?
Questions such as these led Mahayana thinkers
to formulate views that are subtle and diffi cult
to understand. One such teaching, the "three
body doctrine," suggests that the buddha who
appeared in our world, Siddhartha Gautama,
was only a manifestation in a world defi ned by
names and forms of what is beyond all names
and forms. Another very important teaching
holds that everything is empty, including the
content of Buddhist teaching. However, in order
to attain this ultimate, nirvanic realization, one
may fi rst follow the pains of "relative" truths,
such as worshipping the manifested forms of the
Buddha or seeing enlightenment as something to
be gained. In the end, one will understand that
nirvana is here and now yet beyond name and
form. But MAHAYANA BUDDHISM did not limit itself
to such subtle thinking. It also developed elaborate
mythologies of celestial Buddhas and BODHISATTVAS.
These beings practiced Buddhism not to
benefi t themselves but to make it possible for all
beings to achieve enlightenment.
PRACTICES
Just as Buddhism has not required its adherents
to reject other religious beliefs, so it has not
required them to refrain from other religious practices.
As a result, Buddhist practice varies widely.
Japanese Buddhists participate in SHINTO rituals.
Buddhists in parts of southeast Asia engage in
spirit-cults.
Some specifi cally Buddhist practices aim at
achieving nirvana. THERAVADA BUDDHISM emphasizes
following the Buddha's Eightfold Path: right views,
right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration. Most forms of Buddhism have well
developed traditions of MEDITATION. In Theravada,
samadhi meditation focuses one's concentration in
turn on a series of exercises in order to correct certain
vices; vipassana or insight meditation aims at
a complete awareness of one's surroundings. Practitioners
of ZEN BUDDHISM sit and walk in meditation
(ZAZEN and kinhin) and at times experience
moments of satori, enlightenment. Such moments
may come during ordinary activities, too, so that
Zen has developed many arts, from swordsmanship
to fl ower arranging. Other forms, such as PURE
LAND BUDDHISM, teach their followers to rely on the
assistance of a Buddha.
Not all specifi cally Buddhist practices aim at
enlightenment. Lay supporters within Theravada
give charity, visit STUPAS, and perform other activities
in the hope of acquiring merit. This merit will
result in a better rebirth in the next life and take
them one step closer to release. Instead of acquiring
merit for oneself, Mahayana emphasizes acts
of compassion to benefi t all beings.
ORGANIZATION
During the 45 years of his wandering as the Buddha,
Siddhartha Gautama organized his community
into two groups, the Sangha, that is, the com-munity of monks and nuns, and the lay supporters.
This organization has been typical of Theravada
Buddhism. Monks and nuns beg for their food and
devote their lives to following the Buddha's path.
Political authorities such as kings and queens have
always been important lay supporters.
In Mahayana the distinction between the
Sangha and lay supporters tends to be much
less rigid. The monastic life is not unknown, but
Mahayana makes ultimate release available to those
who are not religious professionals. Furthermore,
in certain Mahayana traditions priests may marry,
eat meat, and drink wine. Such behavior violates
Theravada guidelines for monks and nuns.
Although the Buddha made provision for an
order of nuns, the number of nuns has traditionally
been small. As Buddhism has begun to grow
in Europe and North America, women are starting
to assume more active leadership roles.
SIGNIFICANCE
Buddhism is one of the world's most important religions.
At the end of the 20th century it had more
than 300,000,000 adherents. Buddhism has profoundly
infl uenced philosophy, literature, and the
arts in Asia for over 2,000 years. In recent decades
it has also been extremely popular in some segments
of American society.