Tennis. I INTRODUCTION Tennis, game played with a racket and a ball by two (as in singles) or four (as in doubles) competitors, on a rectangular court with a net strung between the midpoints of the longer sides of the court. Tennis may be played indoors or outdoors. The game ranks as one of the most popular spectator and participation sports in the world, with fans and competitors in more than 100 countries. Originally called lawn tennis to distinguish it from the sport of court tennis, from which it was derived, the game is now commonly known as tennis. II PLAYING COURT AND EQUIPMENT The court is marked with white lines to indicate its dimensions and service areas. The court is 78 ft (23.8 m) long, divided into two equal sides by a net standing 3 ft (0.9 m) high at the center of the court. For singles the court is 27 ft (8.2 m) wide. For doubles the addition of alleys 4.5 ft (1.4 m) wide along the two longer sides increases the width to 36 ft (11 m). (For more detail, see accompanying diagram.) Courts may be made up of grass, clay, asphalt, concrete, wood, artificial grass, or composite materials. A tennis ball is hollow and composed of inflated rubber covered with a fabric made of wool and artificial fibers. Yellow and white balls are used in tournament competition and are the most common colors, although balls of other colors are manufactured. A standard tennis ball measures between 2.5 and 2.6 in (6.35 and 6.6 cm) in diameter and weighs between 1.98 and 2.1 oz (56 and 59.4 g). Two new sizes of tennis balls were introduced in 2001 with characteristics tailored to specific court surfaces. One of these is termed "fast," to be used on courts classified as "slow pace" (such as clay courts). The other new type of ball (labeled "slow") is designed for use on "fast pace" courts (such as grass). Both new types are slightly larger than the standard ball but weigh about the same. There is no uniform design of tennis rackets, and their sizes and shapes vary. The general classifications, determined by the size of the racket head, are standard, midsize, oversize, and super oversize. In tournament play, the maximum length of a racket is 29 in (73.7 cm). The maximum width is 12.5 in (31.8 cm). The head of the racket may not exceed a length of 15.5 in (39.4 cm) and a width of 11.5 in (29.2 cm), and it is usually strung with resilient gut or nylon or other synthetic materials. There are no restrictions on weight. Rackets were originally made of wood, but now virtually all rackets are made of materials such as aluminum, graphite, and carbon fiber, which are stronger and lighter than wood. The racket handle is generally covered with a rubber or leather grip. Modern designers have also incorporated vibration-dampening technology and made rackets much more durable. Players usually wear lightweight clothing, traditionally white, and shoes with nonskid rubber soles. III SERVICE AND PLAY A serve begins every point of a tennis match. The player who initiates the point is called the server, and the one who receives the ball is called the receiver. To serve, a player tosses the ball into the air and strikes it before it touches the ground, hitting it into the opponent's service area, known as the service box. Although players usually employ an overhand motion to serve, it is permissible to strike the ball underhanded. The server delivers the ball from behind the back line, known as the baseline. His or her feet must not touch the court until the ball is struck. On the first serve of a game, the server stands on the right side of the court and attempts to hit the ball into the service box on the diagonally opposite side of the court. Two tries are permitted for each service. If the ball first strikes any part of the opponent's court except the service box, or exits the court altogether, a fault is called. A fault is also called if the ball is served into the net, or if it strikes the net before hitting the opponent's court outside the service box or before exiting the court altogether. A foot fault is called if the server's foot touches the baseline or enters the court on the ground before service is completed. Although it is technically permissible to call a foot fault on your opponent, this is rarely done--usually foot faults are only called at competitive events where line judges are used. After one fault a server may serve again. If both tries result in faults, a double fault is called, and the opponent wins the point. If the serve, on either try, touches the net and then falls into the diagonally opposite service box, a let is called, and the server is permitted to serve again. A valid serve that is not touched at all by the opponent is called an ace. In tennis, a ball that hits the line is considered in. This is true for all shots. In general, the faster the serve, the more difficult it is to return. But a faster serve is also more difficult for the server to control. Accordingly, first serve attempts usually have more velocity; second serves usually have less speed and, sometimes, more spin. In preparation for returning serve, the receiver stands a certain distance behind the service box line, usually close to the baseline. In anticipation of a fast serve, many players move behind the baseline to provide more time to react. After the first point has been played, the service is made from the left-hand side of the court into the opponent's diagonally opposite service court. On each point thereafter the side from which service is made alternates until an entire game has been played. The opponent serves the next game, and the pattern of alternation of serve continues. In doubles, serves alternate between teams and also between players, so that an individual player will serve every fourth game. After a successful serve the ball is hit back and forth until one player or side fails to return the ball successfully. The point is lost when a player lets the ball bounce twice, drives it into the net, or hits it beyond the boundaries of the opposite side of the court. If the ball strikes the line of the court, it is considered in play. If, after hitting the net, a shot falls out of bounds on the opposite side of the court, it is considered out; if the ball falls in bounds in the opposite court, it is considered in play. When a shot is unsuccessful, the opponent scores a point. IV SCORING Scoring is identical in the singles and doubles games. A tennis game, when not prolonged by a tie, is played to four points, designated by the terms 15, 30, 40, and game, with zero points being referred to by the term love (possibly derived from the French for "the egg," l'oeuf, referring to the physical appearance of the number zero). A tie at 40 is called deuce. Because a game must be won by two points, play continues from deuce until one player leads by a margin of two points. After reaching deuce, the player who can win the game on the next point is said to have the "advantage," while a subsequent tied score is always called deuce. (A system referred to as "no-ad" is sometimes employed in which the winner of the point following the first deuce wins the game.) In tennis competition, the score of the server is always given first. Typical scores at stages of a given tennis game might be "love-15" or "40-30." The players or teams exchange sides after each odd-numbered game. Players must win six games to win the set, but they must win by at least two games. Thus, if a set becomes tied at 5-5, at least 7 game victories are required to win the set. A tiebreaker is often employed if a set becomes tied at 6-6. A tiebreaker is generally played to 7 points, but because it too must be won by at least two points, it may be extended. The winner of a tiebreaker is recorded as having won the set 7-6, regardless of the point total achieved in the tiebreaker. Tennis matches are usually the best two out of three sets or the best three out of five sets. At the professional level, women generally play best-of-three sets while men play best of five. V OFFICIALS While most recreational matches are refereed by the players themselves, in most high-level tournament competitions officials keep score, determine if shots are good, and interpret rules. The head official on the court, called the chair umpire, sits on a tall chair at one end of the net. A varying number of line judges sit around the court beyond the path of the players. Line judges determine whether serves and shots are good or out. A net-cord judge may be employed to determine when a ball touches the top of the net, and a foot-fault judge may watch for that specific infraction. In the 1980s electronic devices began to be used in some professional tournaments to determine if serves, whose speeds may reach over 100 mph (161 km/h), land in or out of the service box. VI STROKES The basic strokes used in tennis are the forehand and the backhand. In the forehand, the player pivots the body so that the shoulder of the nonracket-bearing arm faces the net. The player then swings the racket forward to meet the ball. In the backhand stroke, the player turns so that the shoulder of the racket-bearing arm faces the net before bringing the racket forward and across the body to meet the ball. The basic types of grips that players may use to hold the racket are called the Eastern, Western, and Continental grips. Players often change their grip depending on the type of shot they are required to hit. A two-handed (also known as a two-fisted) grip is used by some players, primarily for its ability to produce powerful shots. Most often employed to hit the backhand shot, some players use it for forehands as well. There are several other strokes commonly used during a tennis match. The lob is a high, soft return over the head of an opponent who has approached the net. It is frequently used to force the opponent to retreat to the back of the court to play the ball. The lob can also be used as a defensive stroke, providing time for the hitter to regain court position. The overhead smash is a powerful shot often used to return a lob that has not been hit high or deep enough. The shot is hit in a similar manner to the serve, or the spike in volleyball. The drop shot is a lightly hit, spinning return that drops softly over the net, forcing the opponent to approach the net. If the opponent is positioned deep in the court, the drop shot can be used to win the point. A volley occurs when a player strikes the ball before it bounces. The volley is most often employed when a player is playing close to the net. The half volley is a low return of the ball just after it has bounced. In addition to using different shots, a player may put varying spins on the ball to make it bounce in certain ways. Topspin is produced when a player strikes the ball so that it spins from low to high as it travels forward, creating a higher bounce. Topspin enables a player to strike the ball harder, because the added spin helps to bring the ball down and keep it in play. Underspin occurs when a player strikes the ball so that it spins from high to low as it travels forward, reducing the bounce. This shot is called a slice. While putting spin on a shot greatly enhances control, both topspin and underspin reduce the amount of speed on the ball. Most players use both types of spin in the course of a game, as well as hitting the ball flat--that is, without any particular spin. VII AMATEUR COMPETITION Millions of people, most of them amateurs, play tennis worldwide, either as recreation or in amateur tournaments. Internationally, tennis is governed by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), located in London, England, which is a parent body to national governing bodies in more than 100 countries. In the United States the governing body for competitive amateur tennis is the United States Tennis Association (USTA), located in White Plains, New York. The USTA governs amateur tournament play for youths and adults. The organization also operates league tennis programs for adults and helps attract young players to the game by offering several introductory programs. The national governing body for collegiate tennis in the United States is the Intercollegiate Tennis Association (ITA), with headquarters in Princeton, New Jersey. The ITA established a collegiate grand slam, a series of four tournaments culminating in the season-ending National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) tennis tournament, which involves team competitions and individual singles and doubles championships. VIII PROFESSIONAL COMPETITION Tennis was first played professionally in 1926, when American promoter Charles C. Pyle organized a traveling tour for which the players were paid. Professionals were barred, however, from competing in tournaments sanctioned by national tennis organizations, including the prestigious "grand slam" events. During the next 40 years, many but not all of the top male players built reputations in amateur competition before turning professional and earning money playing exhibitions and occasional tournaments. Very few women turned professional during this time. In 1968 the majority of tournaments became open--that is, eligible to both amateur and professional players. After that, professional players quickly came to dominate tournament tennis. To prevent players from going pro too early, minimum age requirements for the professional tours were established. These regulations are sometimes altered, but current guidelines decree that men under the age of 14 are not permitted to play professionally, and from the ages of 14 to 16, they may only play a limited number of pro tournaments. Women under the age of 14 cannot play professionally, and may only participate in a limited number of pro tournaments until they reach the age of 18. There are three major organizations that govern professional tennis. The ITF has jurisdiction over the four so-called grand slam tournaments: the Australian Open in Melbourne, Australia; the French Open in Paris; the Lawn Tennis Championships, commonly called Wimbledon, in London; and the U.S. Open in New York City. The ITF also governs the Davis Cup (men) and the Fed Cup (women), annual international competitions held between national teams. The ATP (formerly the Association of Tennis Professionals), located in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, has jurisdiction over the men's professional events except for the grand slam tournaments. The Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Tour, located in Saint Petersburg, Florida, governs women's professional tennis. IX TOURNAMENTS Entry-level men's professional tournaments are called challenger events. These tournaments offer unranked and lower-ranked players the opportunity to compete for ranking points; the more ranking points a player earns, the better the quality of tournaments he is eligible to play in. A similar system is used in women's tennis, with the tournaments often called futures events. Successful players at these levels can then compete at the tournaments run by the professional tours. Most professional tournaments offer both singles and doubles competitions. Mixed doubles competitions, where a team consists of one male player and one female player, are typically held only at the four grand slam events. Annual tennis tournaments operated by the professional tours, such as the Italian and Canadian opens, are held throughout the world all year long. They involve varying amounts of prize money, and some tournaments are considered more prestigious than others and thus attract higher-ranked players. Matches in tournaments are arranged by a system called seeding. By seeding players in certain places within the pool of players, or draw, according to their performance during the previous 12 months, organizers ensure that the best players do not compete against each other until the later rounds of a tournament. Unanticipated upsets, in which unseeded or lower-seeded players defeat higher-seeded players in early rounds, often add excitement to tournaments. Tournaments involve up to 128 players and seven rounds of play. The ATP Tour operates about 70 tournaments each year, while the WTA Tour operates about 60 competitions annually. Other major tennis championships include the Davis Cup and the Fed Cup. The Davis Cup, started in 1900, is an annual international men's competition held between national teams. The Fed Cup, started in 1963, is the women's equivalent to the Davis Cup. Countries play each other throughout the year in contests known as ties, and the winning country advances to the next round. Davis Cup and Fed Cup competitions involve four singles matches and one doubles match. The team that wins at least three out of the five matches is the winner. Tennis is also an Olympic sport. It was first played in the Olympic Games from 1896 until 1924. After a long hiatus, Olympic play was renewed at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. To win the grand slam--that is, all four major tournaments in one calendar year--is considered the greatest achievement in tennis. The first player to win the grand slam in singles was American Don Budge in 1938. The only other players to win the singles grand slam are American Maureen Connolly in 1953, Australian Rod Laver in 1962 and 1969, Australian Margaret Smith Court in 1970, and German Steffi Graf in 1988. Several players have accomplished the feat in doubles and in mixed doubles. X A HISTORY Origins Although the origins of tennis are not clear, many experts believe tennis, then called lawn tennis, was invented in 1873 by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield, a British army officer. Although Wingfield claimed that he modeled the game--which he called Sphairistiké (Greek for "playing at ball")--after an ancient Greek game, many authorities believe that he adapted the principles of the popular English games of court tennis, squash racquets, and badminton for outdoor play. Early players preferred to call Wingfield's game tennis-on-the-lawn, or lawn tennis. The game was introduced to Bermuda in 1873, and from Bermuda was brought to the United States by Mary Ewing Outerbridge of Staten Island, New York. The first game of lawn tennis in the United States was probably played in 1874 on the grounds of the Staten Island Cricket and Baseball Club. B Early Years The first world amateur championships were held at the All England Lawn Tennis & Croquet Club in Wimbledon, England (men, 1877; women, 1884). By the end of the 19th century, lawn tennis had been introduced into British colonies and other nations throughout the world. In the United States, local rules and standards for the game varied widely until 1881, when the United States Lawn Tennis Association (now the USTA) was organized to standardize rules and equipment. Under its auspices, play for the annual U.S. singles championships for men began in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1881. The national men's singles championships continued to take place annually in Newport until 1915, when the competition moved to the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills, New York. The national women's singles matches began in 1887, at the Philadelphia Cricket Club, and continued there until 1921, when they were also brought to Forest Hills. At the beginning of the 20th century the major international tournaments were Wimbledon and the U.S. championships. Early Wimbledon men's champions included British players Arthur Gore and brothers Reggie and Laurie Doherty. Dorothea Douglass Lambert Chambers of England won the women's title at Wimbledon seven times (1903, 1904, 1906, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1914). The U.S. men's championships were dominated by American William Larned, who won seven times (1901, 1902, 19071911). Americans Elisabeth Moore and Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman both won several U.S. women's championships in the early 1900s, and Norwegian-born Molla Bjurstedt Mallory won eight such titles (1915-1918, 1920-1922, 1926). (Unless noted, all titles referred to in this article are singles titles). C 1920s and 1930s In the 1920s British, American, and French players were the most successful in international play. American Bill Tilden dominated the men's game, winning Wimbledon three times (1920, 1921, 1930) and the U.S. championships seven times (1920-1925, 1929). French players Jean Borotra, René Lacoste, and Henri Cochet were also successful, particularly at Wimbledon, which one of the three of them won each year from 1924 to 1929. Suzanne Lenglen of France and Helen Wills Moody of the United States were the leading female players. The French Championships became one of the game's major tournaments during this time, keyed by the 1928 opening of Roland Garros, a major tennis facility in Paris named after a French pilot of World War I (1914-1918). Outstanding men's players during the 1930s included Don Budge and Ellsworth Vines of the United States and Fred Perry of England. At the end of the decade and in the early 1940s, American Bobby Riggs won two U.S. championships and the 1939 Wimbledon title. During the same period Moody continued her success, finishing her career with eight Wimbledon titles (1927-1930, 1932, 1933, 1935, 1938), seven U.S. championship titles (1923-1925, 1927-1929, 1931), and four French championship titles (1928-1930, 1932). Other leading female players included Alice Marble and Helen Jacobs of the United States and Dorothy Round of England. D 1940s Through 1960s In the period beginning after World War II (1939-1945) the world's top players were Americans Jack Kramer and Pancho Gonzalez. Pancho Segura of Ecuador, whose career would continue into the 1960s, also began his international tennis career in the 1940s. Dominant female players who began their careers at this time included Americans Pauline Betz, winner of four U.S. championships (1942-1944, 1946); Louise Brough, winner of four Wimbledon titles (1948-1950, 1955); and Doris Hart, who captured six grand slam singles titles between 1949 and 1955. In the 1950s Australia became a tennis power, and Australian men won the Davis Cup 15 times from 1950 to 1967, led by outstanding players such as Frank Sedgman, Ken Rosewall, Lew Hoad, Mal Anderson, Neale Fraser, and Ashley Cooper. American Tony Trabert also became a premier player during this time, winning five grand slam singles championships from 1953 to 1955. Maureen Connolly was the dominant female player of the early 1950s, winning the first women's grand slam in 1953 before an injury prematurely ended her career. Althea Gibson won both the Wimbledon and the U.S. championships in 1957 and 1958, becoming the first black player to win those tournaments. During the 1960s the Australians continued their success with players such as Rod Laver, Roy Emerson, Fred Stolle, Tony Roche, and John Newcombe. Emerson would go on to set the career record for most grand slam singles and doubles titles with 28. Other male players who became prominent in this era included Manuel Santana of Spain and Arthur Ashe of the United States. Leading female players included Maria Bueno of Brazil, winner of seven grand slam singles titles; Margaret Smith Court of Australia, the all-time leader with 62 grand slam titles; Virginia Wade of England; and Billie Jean King of the United States, who won a record 20 Wimbledon titles (6 singles and 14 doubles; later tied by Martina Navratilova). E The Open Era Begins In 1968 the open era began when tournaments were opened to professionals as well as amateurs. In the 1970s Newcombe, Ashe, and American Stan Smith were among the top players in the world, joined by such players as Ilie Nastase of Romania and Guillermo Vilas of Argentina. American Jimmy Connors, whose career spanned from the early 1970s to the early 1990s, won five U.S. Opens (1974, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1983). Björn Borg of Sweden won five consecutive Wimbledon titles (1976-1980). Borg's rivalry with American John McEnroe during this period ranks as one of the best in tennis history--their 1980 Wimbledon singles final, won by Borg in the fifth set by a score of 8-6, is often called the greatest match in the sport's history. Among female players, Court, Wade, and King continued to shine, joined by Australian Evonne Goolagong and American Chris Evert, whose 18 grand slam singles titles included an unprecedented streak of 13 straight years with at least one major title. F 1980s Although Connors and McEnroe remained top players through the 1980s, Borg retired early in the decade at age 25. Other leading male players of the era included Czech-born Ivan Lendl, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg of Sweden, and Boris Becker of Germany, who in 1985 became the youngest player to win the Wimbledon men's singles title at 17. One of the most successful female players ever was Czech-born Martina Navratilova. Navratilova won 167 singles titles during her career, including a record nine Wimbledon singles titles (1978, 1979, 1982-1987, 1990). Her rivalry with Evert was one of the most intense and long-lasting in tennis history. Steffi Graf of Germany dominated women's tennis beginning in the late 1980s, eventually winning 22 major singles titles and the 1988 grand slam (all four major singles championships in the same year). Other leading female players of the 1980s included American Tracy Austin and Czech Hana Mandlikova. G 1990s to Today In the early 1990s Lendl, Edberg, and Becker were established stars, joined by outstanding American players such as Pete Sampras, Andre Agassi, Jim Courier, and Michael Chang. Graf developed a rivalry with Yugoslavia-born Monica Seles, who emerged as a dominant player by winning the U.S., French, and Australian opens in both 1991 and 1992. Navratilova remained one of the highest ranked players until her retirement from singles competition at the end of 1994, and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario of Spain, Jennifer Capriati of the United States, and Gabriela Sabatini of Argentina also found success during the decade. Sampras was the dominant player in the world in the 1990s, with multiple championships at Wimbledon (1993-1995, 1997-2000), the U.S. Open (1993, 1995, 1996), and the Australian Open (1994, 1997). His win at Wimbledon in 2000 was his 13th, breaking Emerson's record of 12 career grand slam singles titles, and he added a 14th title at the 2002 U.S. Open. Agassi became just the fifth men's player to win all four grand slam singles events at least once, taking the Australian Open four times (1995, 2000, 2001, 2003), the U.S. Open twice (1994, 1999), the French Open (1999), and Wimbledon (1992). Other male stars of the 1990s included Sergi Bruguera and Carlos Moya of Spain, Goran Ivanisevic of Croatia, Yevgeny Kafelnikov of Russia, Richard Krajicek of The Netherlands, Thomas Muster of Austria, and Patrick Rafter of Australia. In women's tennis, Martina Hingis of Switzerland emerged as one of the top players of the late 1990s, winning five grand slam singles titles, including three at the French Open. Other prominent female players of the period were Jana Novotna of the Czech Republic; Mary Pierce of France; and Lindsay Davenport and sisters Venus Williams and Serena Williams of the United States. Serena Williams won the 1999 U.S. Open singles title, becoming the first black woman player to win a grand slam singles event in more than 40 years. Venus Williams won singles titles at Wimbledon and the U.S. Open in both 2000 and 2001. She repeated at Wimbledon in 2005. In 2002 Navratilova came out of retirement and proved she could still play at the top level in her mid-40s. The following year she won the Australian Open mixed doubles title, becoming the oldest player (46) to win a grand slam championship, and captured a record-tying 20th career Wimbledon title with a mixed doubles victory. In 2004 Navratilova became the oldest woman in 82 years to win a singles match at Wimbledon and also reached the doubles quarterfinals in the Olympics and the doubles semifinals at the French Open and Wimbledon. Capriati broke through and won the Australian and French opens in 2001, the first grand slam singles titles of her career. She successfully defended her Australian title in 2002. In the 2002 French Open Serena Williams beat her sister in the final; in the process, the Williams sisters ascended to the top two positions in the world rankings, the first siblings ever to do so. Serena Williams also defeated her sister in the championship singles matches at the 2002 U.S. Open, the 2002 and 2003 Wimbledon tournaments, and the 2003 Australian Open. In 2001 a new men's tennis star, 20-year-old Lleyton Hewitt of Australia, won his first major title at the U.S. Open and became the youngest male player to finish the year ranked number one in the world. The top young American player of this period was Andy Roddick, who captured the U.S. Open in 2003. Roger Federer of Switzerland emerged as the top player in the world in 2004, winning three of the four major titles (the Australian Open, Wimbledon, and U.S. Open) that year. In 2005 he won Wimbledon for the third straight year, becoming only the third male tennis player since 1936 to win three consecutive singles titles at the hallowed tournament. Federer followed that achievement with his second straight U.S. Open crown, defeating Andre Agassi in the final match. In January 2006 Federer won the Australian Open, but he lost the French Open on clay to Spain's Rafael Nadal, who emerged as Federer's main rival. Returning to the grass courts of Wimbledon, Federer defeated Nadal in the final to win his fourth consecutive Wimbledon singles title. He won his fifth Wimbledon title in 2007, tying the record for consecutive Wimbledon titles set by Björn Borg in 1980. Federer holds the record for most consecutive wins on grass in the Open Era (1968 to the present). Belgians Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin established themselves among the next generation of women's tennis stars. Henin captured three grand slam singles titles during 2003 and 2004, defeating Clijsters each time in the final. Russian women's tennis came to prominence in 2004 as three different players won major titles: Anastasia Myskina (French Open), Maria Sharapova (Wimbledon), and Svetlana Kuznetsova (U.S. Open). In 2005 Serena Williams won the Australian Open, Henin the French Open, Venus Williams captured Wimbledon, and Clijsters collected her first grand slam title by taking the U.S. Open championship. In 2006 France's Amélie Mauresmo won her first grand slam title at the Australian Open and then took her second at Wimbledon in July, defeating Henin in the finals both times. In 2007 Serena Williams claimed her third Australian Open title, Henin her third French Open title, and Venus Williams her fourth Wimbledon title. Reviewed By: Mary Carillo Joel Drucker Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
