209 résultats pour "physician"
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Euthanasia.
permission from the family. B In Other Countries In 1995 the Northern Territory of Australia became the first jurisdiction to explicitly legalize voluntary active euthanasia. However, the federal parliament of Australiaoverturned the law in 1997. In 2001 The Netherlands became the first country to legalize active euthanasia and assisted suicide, formalizing medical practices that thegovernment had tolerated for years. Under the Dutch law, euthanasia is justified (not legally punishable) if the...
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Assisted Suicide.
regardless of the fairness of the procedures used (substantive due process). In the Glucksberg case, the Court indicated that the liberty interest protected by the 14th Amendment does not encompass the right to determine the timing and manner of one’s own death. The Court’s decision means that each state may determine whetheror not to prohibit or permit (and otherwise regulate) assisted suicide. In 2006 the Court upheld Oregon’s law permitting physician-assisted suicide. In a 6-to-3 decision,...
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Medicine.
C Other Health Professionals Medicine is not restricted to physicians. A wide variety of health care practitioners work in this exciting field. By far the largest professional group is nurses. Registerednurses help physicians during examinations, treatment, and surgery. They observe, evaluate, and record patients’ symptoms, administer medications, and provideother care ( see Nursing). Nurse practitioners perform basic duties once reserved for physicians, such as diagnosing and treating common i...
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Surgery.
III SURGICAL PROCEDURES Surgical procedures are classified as optional, required, elective, urgent, and emergent based on the patient’s medical condition. Optional surgery consists of operationsthat are not required but which the patient chooses to undergo as with some types of cosmetic surgery. Required surgery is performed when only surgery will correct aproblem—such as cataracts—but the surgery can be delayed for a period of weeks or months. Elective surgical procedures usually involve cond...
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Health Care System in Canada.
With a few exceptions, provincial health plans cover all medically necessary services, so that patients need not pay directly for anything except so-called incidental costs.These incidental costs include items such as a patient’s private hospital room, unless it is specified by a physician, and transportation to the hospital. Provincial healthplans also do not cover some nonessential procedures, such as laser surgery for the eye, cosmetic surgery, procedures to reverse sterilization, and, in mos...
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Health Insurance.
needs services. Essentially, individuals make regular payments to the plan rather than having to pay especially large sums at any one time in the event of sudden illnessor injury. In this way, the group as a whole funds expensive treatments for those few who need them. Many people believe that in addition to providing financial stability, health insurance can promote good health. Supporters of this idea claim that by lowering thepersonal cost of services, insurance induces individuals to seek he...
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Tuberculosis.
TB has existed for thousands of years. Scars on a skull found in Turkey indicate the presence of the disease 500,000 years ago. Scientists also have found tubercles inmummified bodies from ancient Egypt. References to TB can be found in the writings of ancient Babylonia, Egypt, and China. The term tuberculosis was first used in 1839; it was derived from the Latin word tubercula, meaning small lump, referring to the small scars seen in tissues of infected individuals. TB reappeared in Europe...
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History of Chemistry - chemistry.
even better distillation apparatus than the Arabs had made and to condense the more volatile products of distillation. Among the important products obtained in thisway were alcohol and the mineral acids: nitric, aqua regia (a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric), sulfuric, and hydrochloric. Many new reactions could be carried outusing these powerful reagents. Word of the Chinese discovery of nitrates and the manufacture of gunpowder also came to the West through the Arabs. The Chinese atfirst use...
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Coronary Heart Disease.
when a patient is at rest may indicate that the blood supply of the heart is not normal, and the ECG can often detect damage from a previous heart attack. In anexercise stress test, an ECG is recorded while a patient is performing physical activity such as walking on a treadmill or riding a stationary bicycle. As the intensity ofexercise increases, the doctor looks for specific changes in the ECG that indicate the heart is not getting enough oxygen. In cardiac catheterization, a long, thin, flex...
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Alternative Medicine.
The field of chiropractic was founded by David Daniel Palmer in the 1890s. He believed that joint subluxation, or a partial dislocation, is a causal factor in disease andthat removal of the subluxation by thrusting on the bony projections of the vertebrae restores health. In addition to manipulating and adjusting bone and tissue, particularly in the spinal column, chiropractors use a variety of manual, mechanical, and electrical treatments.Chiropractors are most widely recognized for providing d...
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Alzheimer's Disease.
compared residents of Ibadan, Nigeria, who eat a mostly low-fat vegetarian diet, with African Americans living in Indianapolis, Indiana, whose diet included a variety ofhigh-fat foods. The Nigerians were less likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease compared to their U.S. counterparts. Some researchers suspect that health problems suchas high blood pressure, atherosclerosis (arteries clogged by fatty deposits), high cholesterol levels, or other cardiovascular problems may play a role in the devel...
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Physiology.
III RECENT ADVANCES Among the most important advances of the 20th century are the discovery of new hormones; recognition of the role of vitamins; discovery of blood types; developmentof the electrocardiograph and electroencephalograph, to record the activity of the heart and brain; discovery of the cause and cure of pernicious anemia by GeorgeRichards Minot, William Parry Murphy, and George Hoyt Whipple, all American physicians; and greater understanding of metabolism, the role of enzymes, and...
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Poliomyelitis.
Physical therapy helps patients with paralytic polio stretch and move affected muscles. This movement minimizes the atrophy, or shrinkage, of affected muscles andlimbs and builds strength. Exercises can also retrain working muscles to compensate for other muscles that have permanently lost the ability to move. Rehabilitativetherapy trains patients to use braces, crutches, and other devices that provide support and aid mobility. V PREVENTION OF POLIO Immunization with polio vaccine is the best w...
- C. Everett Koop - Biography. American physician, educator, and public health
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Forensic Science.
barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin. When a body is discovered in a lake, stream, river, or ocean and the lungs are found to be filled with water, the medical examiner must determine if the drowningoccurred where the body was found or elsewhere. A standard microscope that can magnify objects to 1500 times their actual size is used to look for the presence orabsence of diatoms, single-celled algae that are found in all natural bodies of water. The absence of diatoms raises the possi...
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Anatomy.
The body defends itself against foreign proteins and infectious microorganisms by means of a complex dual system that depends on recognizing a portion of the surfacepattern of the invader. The two parts of the system are termed cellular immunity, in which lymphocytes are the effective agent, and humoral immunity, based on theaction of antibody molecules. When particular lymphocytes recognize a foreign molecular pattern (termed an antigen), they release antibodies in great numbers; other lymphocy...
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Psychotherapy.
Other managed-care companies pay therapists a set fee to meet with a client for up to a specified maximum number of sessions depending on the nature of theproblem, free of interference from case reviewers. For example, a managed-care firm may pay a therapist $200 to hold up to eight sessions with a person. If the clientuses all eight sessions, the therapist normally loses money. But if treatment stops after two or three sessions, the therapist makes a profit. This relatively new system iscontrov...
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Medical Ethics.
medical profession. In recent years, however, the field of medical ethics has struggled to keep pace with the many complex issues raised by new technologies for creating and sustaininglife. Artificial-respiration devices, kidney dialysis, and other machines can keep patients alive who previously would have succumbed to their illnesses or injuries.Advances in organ transplantation have brought new hope to those afflicted with diseased organs. New techniques have enabled prospective parents to con...
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Psychology.
Clinical psychology is dedicated to the study, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illnesses and other emotional or behavioral disorders. More psychologists work in this field than in any other branch of psychology. In hospitals, community clinics, schools, and in private practice, they use interviews and tests to diagnose depression,anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental illnesses. People with these psychological disorders often suffer terribly. They experience disturbing symptoms t...
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Abortion.
Intact dilation and extraction, also referred to as a partial birth abortion, consists of partially removing the fetus from the uterus through the vaginal canal, feet first,and using suction to remove the brain and spinal fluid from the skull. The skull is then collapsed to allow complete removal of the fetus from the uterus. III SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES Abortion has become one of the most widely debated ethical issues of our time. On one side are pro-choice supporters—individuals who favor a...
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Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
Although the drugs are prescribed most often to treat ADHD among children, increasingly adults are taking the drugs for ADHD. From 2002 to 2005 the number ofprescriptions written for adults reportedly increased by 90 percent. In the United States about 2.5 million children and about 1.5 million adults take ADHD drugs. Amember of the FDA advisory panel noted that adults are more likely to have a higher risk of heart problems. Most of the 25 sudden deaths, however, were amongchildren. The prelimin...
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Deoxyribonucleic Acid - biology.
bacterium Escherichia coli . In 1998 scientists achieved the milestone of sequencing the complete genome of a multicellular organism—a roundworm identified as Caenorhabditis elegans . The Human Genome Project, an international research collaboration, was established to determine the sequence of all of the 3 billion nucleotide base pairs that make up thehuman genetic material. In 2003 scientists completed the sequencing of the human genome. The project identified nearly all of the estimated 20...
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Exercise.
broad, and most studies suggest a positive relationship between physical fitness and mental achievement. The relationship between regular aerobic exercise and cardiovascular health and longevity is well established. Regular exercise leads to a reduction in the risk ofcoronary heart disease, in which fatty deposits (plaque) form in blood vessels supplying the muscular wall of the heart, compromising oxygen delivery to the heartmuscle. In addition, with regular exercise the efficiency of the heart...
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Black Death.
disappeared in the West. V DISAPPEARANCE OF PLAGUE Plague became less common in Europe after the 1530s. The last plague in England was in 1665, the last in Western Europe in 1722. Numerous theories have beenoffered to explain the disappearance of plague. It has been argued that black rats, the primary carriers of plague, may have been replaced by larger brown rats that donot carry the infection. A second theory suggests that increased immunity among the rodents that carried the disease or chang...
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Black Death .
disappeared in the West. V DISAPPEARANCE OF PLAGUE Plague became less common in Europe after the 1530s. The last plague in England was in 1665, the last in Western Europe in 1722. Numerous theories have beenoffered to explain the disappearance of plague. It has been argued that black rats, the primary carriers of plague, may have been replaced by larger brown rats that donot carry the infection. A second theory suggests that increased immunity among the rodents that carried the disease or chang...
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Stroke.
IV DIAGNOSIS The symptoms typical of a stroke can also be caused by other conditions, including brain tumors, various infections, and overdoses of certain drugs. A patient that hasstrokelike symptoms may undergo a battery of imaging techniques to rule out other medical problems and confirm that a stroke has occurred. The key imagingtechnique used in diagnosing strokes is computed tomography (also known as CT or CAT scanning), which employs X rays to obtain images of the internal structures oft...
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Dentistry.
Together with dentists, dental hygienists and dental assistants make up the team that provides dental care to patients. Hygienists record patient medical histories, suchas blood pressure and pulse. They clean teeth, apply sealants and fluoride treatments, teach patients sound oral hygiene practices, and often assist with X rays. Manyhygienists receive a two-year associate degree, while others may choose to enroll in a four-year program at a university or in a master’s degree program. There are25...
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Arabic Literature
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INTRODUCTION
Arabic Literature, literature written in the Arabic language, from the 6th century to the present.
The life of the Prophet Muhammad also generated its own literary sources, primary among which is the hadith. The hadiths were a collection of the Prophet's sayings and actions, transmitted through a chain of authorities said to go back to Muhammad himself. The two most famous collections of hadiths are those of al-Bukhari andMuslim in the 9th century. These works provide a wealth of information covering all aspects of a Muslim's life, from prayer to personal, social, and business conduct. The...
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Virus (life science) - biology.
RNA into DNA earned them their name because this process is the reverse of the usual transfer of genetic information, from DNA to RNA.) The DNA form of theretrovirus genome is then integrated into the cellular DNA and is referred to as the provirus. The viral genome is replicated every time the host cell replicates its DNA and is thus passed on to daughter cells. Hepatitis B virus can also transcribe RNA to DNA, but this virus packages the DNA version of its genome into virus particles. Unlike...
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Ear.
I
INTRODUCTION
Ear, organ of hearing and balance. Only vertebrates, or animals
line or rotates in any direction. Each canal also contains sensory areas with sensory hair cells that project into a cone-shaped cap of gelatin. Two of the semicircularcanals are in a vertical position and are used to detect vertical movement, such as jumping or falling. The third canal is horizontal and detects horizontal movement,such as turning or spinning. The action of the canals depends on the inertia of the fluid inside. When the motion of the body changes, the fluid lags behind, causing...
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Bacteria - biology.
A2 b Bacterial Killers Some dramatic infectious diseases result from exposure to bacteria that are not part of our normal bacterial community. Cholera, one of the world’s deadliest diseasestoday, is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae . Cholera is spread in water and food contaminated with the bacteria, and by people who have the disease. After entering the body, the cholera bacteria grow in the intestines, often along the surface of the intestinal wall, where they secrete a toxin (poiso...
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Nauru Facts and Figures.
Population per physician Not available Population per hospital bed Not available Literacy rateTotal Not available Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) Not available Number of years of compulsory schooling 11 years (2001-2002) Number of students per teacher, primary school 23 students per teacher (1998-1999) GOVERNMENTForm of government Republic Voting qualifications Universal and compulsory at age 20 Constitution 3...
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Monaco Facts and Figures.
Male 76.1 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 5 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 171 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 51 people (1995) Literacy rateTotal Not available Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) Not available Number of years of compulsory schooling 10 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 22 students per teacher (2000-2001)...
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Liechtenstein Facts and Figures.
HEALTH AND EDUCATIONLife expectancy Total 80 years (2008 estimate) Female 83.5 years (2008 estimate) Male 76.4 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 5 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician Not available Population per hospital bed Not available Literacy rateTotal 100 percent (1981) Female 100 percent (1981) Male 100 percent (1981) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) Not available Number of years of compulsory...
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Andorra Facts and Figures.
Population per physician 275 people (2006) Population per hospital bed 303 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal Not available Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) Not available Number of years of compulsory schooling 10 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 12 students per teacher (2002-2003) GOVERNMENTForm of government Parliamentary coprincipality Voting qualifications Universal at age 18 C...
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North Korea Facts and Figures.
Male 69.5 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 22 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 337 people (2004) Population per hospital bed Not available Literacy rateTotal 99 percent (1995) Female 99 percent (1995) Male 99 percent (1995) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) Not available Number of years of compulsory schooling 10 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 32 students per teacher (1...
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Equatorial Guinea Facts and Figures.
Population per physician 3,314 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 357 people (1988) Literacy rateTotal 87.1 percent (2005 estimate) Female 80.5 percent (2005 estimate) Male 94.1 percent (2005 estimate) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 2.2 percent (2001-2002) Number of years of compulsory schooling 5 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 42 students per teacher (2000-2001) GOVERNMENTForm of governmentRepublic Voting qu...
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Solomon Islands Facts and Figures.
Total 73.4 years (2008 estimate) Female 76.1 years (2008 estimate) Male 70.9 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 19 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 7,692 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 526 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal Not available Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 3.6 percent (2000-2001) Number of years of compulsory schooling Not available Numbe...
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Federated States of Micronesia Facts and Figures.
Infant mortality rate 27 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 1,667 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 323 people (2000) Literacy rateTotal 89 percent (1980) Female 88 percent (1980) Male 91 percent (1980) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 6.7 percent (2001-2002) Number of years of compulsory schooling 8 years (2001-2002) Number of students per teacher, primary school Not available GOVERNMENTForm of governmentCon...
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São Tomé and Príncipe Facts and Figures.
Infant mortality rate 39 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 2,037 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 211 people (1991) Literacy rateTotal 57.4 percent (1995) Female 42.4 percent (1995) Male 73.2 percent (1995) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 4.6 percent (1986) Number of years of compulsory schooling 6 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 33 students per teacher (2001-2002) GOVERNME...
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Vanuatu Facts and Figures.
Female 65.2 years (2008 estimate) Male 62 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 51 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 9,091 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 323 people (2001) Literacy rateTotal 52.9 percent (1995) Female 47.8 percent (1995) Male 57.3 percent (1995) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 6.4 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 7 years (2000) Number of students per...
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Antigua and Barbuda Facts and Figures.
Infant mortality rate 18 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 5,882 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 400 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal 89 percent (1995) Female 88 percent (1995) Male 90 percent (1995) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 4 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 12 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 19 students per teacher (1999-2000) GOVERNMENT...
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Iceland Facts and Figures.
Male 78.4 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 3 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 265 people (2006) Population per hospital bed 132 people (2002) Literacy rateTotal 100 percent (1995) Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 7.8 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 11 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 11 students per teac...
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Denmark Facts and Figures.
Infant mortality rate 4 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 273 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 250 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal 99 percent (1995) Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 8.6 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 10 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 10 students per teacher (2000-2001) GOVERNMENTForm of g...
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Slovakia Facts and Figures.
Other 6 percent HEALTH AND EDUCATIONLife expectancyTotal 75.2 years (2008 estimate) Female 79.3 years (2008 estimate) Male 71.2 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 7 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 307 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 139 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal Not available Female Not available Male Not available Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 4.4 percent (2002-2003) Number of...
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Barbados Facts and Figures.
Population per physician 827 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 132 people (1996) Literacy rateTotal 99.7 percent (2000) Female 99.7 percent (2000) Male 99.7 percent (2000) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 7.9 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 11 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 16 students per teacher (2002-2003) GOVERNMENTForm of government Parliamentary democracy Voting qualifications...
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The Gambia Facts and Figures.
HEALTH AND EDUCATIONLife expectancyTotal 55 years (2008 estimate) Female 56.9 years (2008 estimate) Male 53.1 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 69 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 28,571 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 1,637 people (1990) Literacy rateTotal 42.4 percent (2005 estimate) Female 35 percent (2005 estimate) Male 50.2 percent (2005 estimate) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 3 perc...
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Uzbekistan Facts and Figures.
Other 7.1 percent Religious affiliationsMuslim (mostly Sunni) 76 percent Atheist 3 percent Christian 2 percent Nonreligious 18 percent Other 1 percent HEALTH AND EDUCATIONLife expectancyTotal 65.4 years (2008 estimate) Female 69 years (2008 estimate) Male 62 years (2008 estimate) Infant mortality rate 68 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 347 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 182 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal 99.2 percent (200...
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Tonga Facts and Figures.
Infant mortality rate 12 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 2,903 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 313 people (2001) Literacy rateTotal 99.6 percent (1995) Female 99.5 percent (1995) Male 99.7 percent (1995) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 5 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 9 years (2001-2002) Number of students per teacher, primary school 22 students per teacher (2002-2003) GOVER...
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Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Facts and Figures.
Infant mortality rate 14 deaths per 1,000 live births (2008 estimate) Population per physician 1,140 people (2004) Population per hospital bed 222 people (2003) Literacy rateTotal 95.6 percent (1995) Female 95.5 percent (1995) Male 95.8 percent (1995) Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP) 10.5 percent (2002-2003) Number of years of compulsory schooling 11 years (2002-2003) Number of students per teacher, primary school 18 students per teacher (2002-2003) G...