172 résultats pour "philosophy"
- Encyclopedia of Philosophy: MORAL PHILOSOPHY: WISDOM AND UNDERSTANDING (the system of aristotle)
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: al-Farabi, Abu Nasr
fully justifies Fakhry's characterization of al-Farabi, cited earlier, as 'the founder of Arab Neo-Platonism'. 3 Epistemology Farabian epistemology has both a Neoplatonic and an Aristotelian dimension. Much of the former has already been surveyed in our examination of al-Farabi's metaphysics, and thus our attention turns now to theAristotelian dimension. Our three primary Arabic sources for this are al-Farabi's Kitab ihsa' al-'ulum , Risala fi'l-'aql and Kitab al-huruf . It is...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: THE ATOMISTS
Democritus wrote on ethics as well as physics: the sayings which have been handed down to us suggest that as a moralist he was edifying rather than inspiring. The following remark, sensible but unexciting, is typical of many:Be satisfied with what you have, and do not spend your time dreaming of acquisitions which excite envy and admiration; look at the lives of thosewho are poor and in distress, so that what you have and own may appear great and enviable. A man who is lucky in his son-in-law,...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Jeremy Bentham
attack on the notions of natural law and natural rights has been more influential than his advocacy of the principleof utility: it has had the effect of making consequentialism respectable in moral philosophy.Consequentialists, like Bentham, judge actions by their consequences, and there is no class of actions which is ruledout in advance. A believer in natural law, told that some Herod or Nero has killed five thousand citizens guilty of nocrime, can say straightway ‘that was a wicked act'. The...
-
Bradley, Francis Herbert
the posthumously published Collected Essays (1935). He was awarded honours both foreign and domestic, including the Order of Merit. Though a freethinker, he was said to be politically conservative. His writings reveal a character far from narrowly intellectual. 2 Philosophy of history Bradley's first publication was the pamphlet ‘The Presuppositions of Critical History' (1874). Though perhaps the earliest major theoretical study in English of the notion of historical fact, it had little...
-
Plato
I
INTRODUCTION
Plato (428?
one of the individuals escapes from the cave into the light of day. With the aid of the sun, that person sees for the first time the real world and returns to the cave withthe message that the only things they have seen heretofore are shadows and appearances and that the real world awaits them if they are willing to struggle free oftheir bonds. The shadowy environment of the cave symbolizes for Plato the physical world of appearances. Escape into the sun-filled setting outside the cave symbolize...
-
Plato.
one of the individuals escapes from the cave into the light of day. With the aid of the sun, that person sees for the first time the real world and returns to the cave withthe message that the only things they have seen heretofore are shadows and appearances and that the real world awaits them if they are willing to struggle free oftheir bonds. The shadowy environment of the cave symbolizes for Plato the physical world of appearances. Escape into the sun-filled setting outside the cave symbolize...
-
Pan-Africanism.
(in New York City). These congresses were attended by increasing numbers of representatives from the United States, Europe, Africa, and the Caribbean. Severalimportant factors affected the growing popularity of the congresses. First, many delegates were sponsored by international labor movements, which were growing insize and power in the 1920s. A second factor was the growth of the black nationalist movement of Marcus Garvey. The Garvey movement was important in the UnitedStates as a popular ex...
-
-
Renaissance
I
INTRODUCTION
Renaissance, series of literary and cultural movements in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.
the great writings of ancient Greece and Rome. Intellectuals continued to build on the ideas of the Renaissance during the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, a time when scientific advancements led to a newemphasis on the power of human reason. One of the early Enlightenment thinkers was French philosopher and writer Voltaire. He claimed that the Renaissance was acrucial stage in liberating the mind from the superstition and error that he believed characterized Christian society during the Middl...
-
Renaissance .
the great writings of ancient Greece and Rome. Intellectuals continued to build on the ideas of the Renaissance during the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, a time when scientific advancements led to a newemphasis on the power of human reason. One of the early Enlightenment thinkers was French philosopher and writer Voltaire. He claimed that the Renaissance was acrucial stage in liberating the mind from the superstition and error that he believed characterized Christian society during the Middl...
-
Beattie, James
completely fulfilled, largely because his already fragile health declined markedly and his wife gradually became mentally unstable. Capitalizing on the popularity of the Essay , in 1773 he solicited subscriptions for a new edition which would include additional essays on other topics, and, after delays caused by illness, he saw this enlarged version through the press in 1776. Eventually his deterioriating condition and that of his wife forced him to abandon any hope of completing a systematic...
-
Certeau, Michel de
Heterology, the second of de Certeau's philosophical inflections, is his name for the 'science' of otherness or alterity. Its topic is whatever resists being named, classified, or organized in a body of knowledge, often what generates or inspires it. This resistant other takes the form of those nocturnal musings, beings, impressions, dreams or epiphanic flashes that fascinate but cause consternation to the diurnal being. Frequently, the other who irrupts into the familiar world of samene...
-
Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas Caritat de
years he also came under the influence of Euler, Fontaine, the Bernouillis and, above all, of the distinguished mathematician and academician, Jean Le Rond D'Alembert , who became his patron. He was elected Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1773, and in 1782 became a member of the French Academy. An enthusiastic supporter and theorist of the Revolution, he played an important role in the drafting of the Déclaration des droits in 1789. Suspected later of being a Girondin, he w...
-
Berlin, Isaiah
assumption. The denial of a fixed human nature comes to saying first, that there are many different and no canonically correct expressions of these potentialities; second, that what expressions these potentialities might receive cannot be recognized in advance of historical experience; third, that these two points hold good for the future, so that there can be no Hegelian (or - more particularly for Berlin's concerns - Marxist) total realization of human possibilities (see Hegel, G.W.F. ; Ma...
-
Berdiaev, Nikolai Aleksandrovich
was a period of intense spiritual searching for Berdiaev as for many others; under the influence of a great range of thinkers, including Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Vladimir Solov'ëv , Vasilii Rozanov, Fëdor Dostoevskii, Lev Tolstoi and Dmitrii Merezhkovskii (see Russian Religious-Philosophical Renaissance ), he moved from Neo-Kantian Marxism (though without abandoning his socialist convictions, as we shall see in §5) to the religiously oriented, mystically coloured personalism that he would...
-
Civil society
society but, unlike Hegel, he sought a revolutionary reunification of the civil and the political ( Marx 1843 ). Finally, Tocqueville worked with a three-part model that differentiated, albeit unsystematically, between a civil society of economic and cultural associations and publics, a political society of local, provincial and national assemblies, and the administrative apparatus of the state ( Tocqueville 1835-40 ). The professionalization of philosophy and the emergence of differentiate...
-
-
Bachelard, Gaston (en anglais)
understanding not only his own work, but also that of Althusser and the followers of Lacan . In France, Bachelard has been criticized by postmodernists for remaining faithful to some of the methods of critical philosophy, and by Marxists for his humanism. His works on poetics inspired many of the French New Critics (see French philosophy of science §§1-2 ). 2 The new scientific spirit To have taught science in the early part of the twentieth century is to have experienced dramatic ch...
-
Bogdanov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
difference from the materialism, dialectical and historical, which he admired in the works of Plekhanov , 'the father of Russian Marxism' . By the time that Lenin learned the difference - talking with Plekhanov in Swiss exile - Bogdanov and he had become leaders of the emergent Bolshevik faction within the Russian Social Democratic Party. Though Plekhanov was a major figure in the rival Menshevik faction, Lenin still considered him the greatest teacher of orthodox Marxist philosophy. Bogdan...
-
Confucius
I
INTRODUCTION
Confucius (551 or 552-479
BC),
Chinese philosopher and educator, one of the most important individuals in Chinese history, and one of the most influential figures in
world history.
From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows nointerest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubtcontinue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals. Mi...
-
Confucius.
From a modern perspective, Confucius’s worldview has certain limitations. He was ignorant of cultural diversity; he accepted the sexism of his society; he shows nointerest in natural science or technology; his political philosophy is undemocratic; and he gives insufficient stress to social change. However, Confucius will no doubtcontinue to inspire people across the world with his vision of social harmony, his insight into human virtue, and his techniques for cultivating ethical individuals. Mi...
-
George Bush.
1986 it was folded into Harken Energy Corporation, another Texas petroleum company. Bush served as a consultant and a member of Harken’s board of directors. In 1987 Bush relocated his family to Washington, D.C., to assist his father in his bid to become president. He worked as a campaign adviser at his father’s nationalcampaign headquarters, serving as a liaison to the media and to conservative and Christian leaders. He was a trusted confidant of his father and mother, whosometimes dispatched Bu...
-
George Bush - USA History.
1986 it was folded into Harken Energy Corporation, another Texas petroleum company. Bush served as a consultant and a member of Harken’s board of directors. In 1987 Bush relocated his family to Washington, D.C., to assist his father in his bid to become president. He worked as a campaign adviser at his father’s nationalcampaign headquarters, serving as a liaison to the media and to conservative and Christian leaders. He was a trusted confidant of his father and mother, whosometimes dispatched Bu...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: AVICENNA
is to say, whose essence includes that mark of necessity which is lacking in all other things and which can also beexpressed as the identity in it of essence and existence. In this way, the cosmogony sketched above is given aphilosophical basis. Just as the whole system of the world comes about from the thought which the Necessary Beinghas of itself, so this being, in thinking itself at the same time thinks everything in the universe: it thinks ‘the higher(that is, heavenly) beings, each in its...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Akrasia
apparent contradiction. Certainly, though, VII 3 does make it seem as though Aristotle is inclined to deny that there can be such a thing as utterly clear-eyed akrasia - the calm, deliberate and intentional performance of an action known not to be in one's own best interests. The chapter is largely concerned with the application to the problemof akrasia of two distinctions, one rooted in Aristotle's doctrine of the practical syllogism, the other concerned with a contrast between the mere po...
-
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: J.S.Mill
so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in case he do otherwise. To justify that, the conduct from which it is desired to deter him, must be calculated to produce evil to some one else. The only part of the conduct of any one, for which he is ame...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abelard, Peter
Ockham, writing around 1317, seems totally unaware of his work. 2 Works In order to understand and assess Abelard as a philosopher, it is important to consider not only his works on logicbut also his writings on theology. At risk of considerable over-simplification, his works may be divided into thosecomposed before his stay in the community near Quincy (1122-7) and those written during and after that stay. AsC.J. Mews (1985) has pointed out, this break seems to correspond with certain revisions...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Sigmund Freud
his career, regarded neurotic symptoms as the result of the repression of sexual impulses during child¬hood, andsaw neurotic characters as fixated at an early stage of their development.Freud attached great importance to the onset of the phallic stage. At that time, he believed, a boy was sexuallyattracted to his mother, and began to resent his father's possession of her. But his hostility to his father leads tofear that his father will retaliate by castrating him. So the boy abandons his sexua...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: DuNS Scotus
form. According to Aquinas, two humans, Peter and Paul, were distinct from each other not on account of theirform, but on account of their matter. Scotus rejected this, and postulated a distinct formal element for eachindividual: his haecceitas or thisness. Peter had a different haecceitas from Paul, and so, presumably, did Browniefrom Eeyore.In an individual such as Socrates we have, then, according to Scotus, both a common human nature and anindividuating principle. The human nat...
-
Simone de Beauvoir
the human is characterized by both the lack of being and an unrealizable passion, the ‘desire of being' (désir d'être ), that is, to attain a fixed identity or essence. Beauvoir adds to this the Heideggerian notion of Erschlossenheit (disclosure; in French, dévoilement ), therewith pointing also to the positive side of existence. According to her, the human being not only lacks and desires being, but also wants to ‘disclose being' . Or, through the human's vain desire, the world is d...
-
Bodin, Jean
and doctrine contradicted Bodin's long-standing principles of legitimacy, non-resistance and religious tolerance. Yet Bodin, like many other royalist magistrates of the time, openly collaborated with the League. He sought to justify his course by mystical reflections on the preordained doom of the ruling dynasty. But he seems to have been driven by fears not only for his office and his property, but perhaps for his life as well; now, as in the past, he was under suspicion of heresy. He stood...
-
Cardano, Girolamo
the first moves towards the theory of probability. In mechanics 'Cardano's suspension' is still regarded as a success. He wrote on music and on dreams, believed in demons, and was regarded as a reliable astrologer, who even cast the horoscope of Jesus Christ. 3 Metaphysics Cardano claimed that Plotinus and Aristotle were his main inspiration in philosophy, and though he argued explicitly against Aristotle, his theory is implicitly based on the Aristotelian tradition. While he was not a s...
-
Bauer, Bruno
Bauer's efforts to treat the Gospel stories as the unconscious expressions of the religious mind, and to trace their historical development. By 1840, he had written a number of multi-volume studies devoted to explaining that biblical history was fundamentally an imaginative exercise of the religious mind, with little or no actual basis in fact. This thesis was set forth in his Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes (Critique of the Gospel of John) . From this point on, Bauer would...
-
-
Casuistry
handbooks of the Middle Ages and reached its fullest expression in Roman Catholic textbooks of moral theology of the Counter-Reformation. The method was also embraced by a number of Anglican divines and members of the Reformed tradition. The impetus behind the case-method lay in the desire among theologians and philosophers to discover the moral norms embodied in divine law in the circumstances of human life, rather than finding them in antecedent absolute norms which one could then apply to a s...
-
Chaadaev, Pëtr Iakovlevich
transcendent God; his emanation is the 'world consciousness' , that is, supra-individual social consciousness, living in tradition and developing with it; below is the empirical consciousness of isolated individuals; on the lowest rung is pre-human nature. In this way Chaadaev combined the traditional theistic conception of a transcendent God with pantheistic emphasis on God's immanent presence in the world. This was in tune with Christian Neoplatonism (which reached Chaadaev through the es...
-
Collingwood, Robin George
philosopher meant by a doctrine until you know the question to which the doctrine was intended as an answer andhow that question arose. Immediately it follows that you cannot tell whether propositions contradict each otherunless you know that they are answers to the same question. This is partly a plea for intelligent appreciation of thespace of problems within which different writers work, and in effect Collingwood is highlighting a version of whatlater became called the principle of charity (s...
-
Cattaneo, Carlo
States) (1842)), even though he did not ignore the effects of colonialism and its abuses of power ( Dell'India antica e moderna (India, Past and Present) (1846)). Progress, for Cattaneo, is made up of cultural graftings, of conflicts and exchanges of ideas and principles between different peoples and cultures. Social conditions are the source of good or evil. Not for nothing have some critics seen Cattaneo's famous Interdizioni israelitiche (Israeli Interdicts) of 1835 as containing the...
-
english history
He was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and the University of Oxford. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy. Smith returned home and spent the ten years writing The Wealth of Nations , publishing it in 1776. He became famous for this book, which had a profound influence on modern economics and concepts of individual free...
-
HISTOIRE DE KEYNE BRITISH
He was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and the University of Oxford. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy. Smith returned home and spent the ten years writing The Wealth of Nations , publishing it in 1776. He became famous for this book, which had a profound influence on modern economics and concepts of individual free...
-
Raphael (painter)
I
INTRODUCTION
Raphael's La Belle Jardinière
Completed in 1508 in Florence, La Belle Jardinière is one of the most famous Madonna portraits of Italian Renaissance
painter Raphael.
III ROMAN PERIOD Leo I and AttilaThis fresco by Italian Renaissance painter Raphael, Leo I Repulsing Attila (1512-1514, Vatican), depicts the confrontationbetween Pope Leo I and Attila the Hun outside Rome in the 5th century. Whereas the figures on the left exemplify theclassical poise typical of the High Renaissance, the tumultuous activity of the figures on the right prefigures the dynamicenergy of the later baroque style.Scala/Art Resource, NY In 1508 Raphael was called to Rome by Pope Juli...
-
Colour and qualia
Faced with the dilemmas posed by subjective colour for physicalist doctrine, some philosophers opt for eliminativism, the doctrine that subjective colour is not a genuine, or real, phenomenon after all. On this view the source of the puzzle is a conceptual confusion; a tendency to extend our judgments concerning objective colour, what appear to be intrinsic properties of the surfaces of physical objects, onto the properties of our mental states. Once we see that all that is happening ‘inside'...
-
-
Chinese Literature
I
INTRODUCTION
Chinese Literature, writings of the Chinese people, with a continuous history of more than 3,000 years.
(Huang) River basin region in the north. The verses are in lines of four characters (or syllables) and use rhyme and alliteration (repetition of the initial letter). Confuciusquoted them in his works. Because he described them as “without depraved thoughts,” all the verses in the Shi jing have been treated as moral allegories. (4) The Li ji (Book of Ritual ) contains detailed discussions of the principles of conduct at court and in private ceremonies. Although the Han dynasty and later ruler...
-
Chinese Literature
I
INTRODUCTION
Chinese Literature, writings of the Chinese people, with a continuous history of more than 3,000 years.
(Huang) River basin region in the north. The verses are in lines of four characters (or syllables) and use rhyme and alliteration (repetition of the initial letter). Confuciusquoted them in his works. Because he described them as “without depraved thoughts,” all the verses in the Shi jing have been treated as moral allegories. (4) The Li ji (Book of Ritual ) contains detailed discussions of the principles of conduct at court and in private ceremonies. Although the Han dynasty and later ruler...
-
Galileo
I
INTRODUCTION
Galileo (1564-1642), Italian physicist and astronomer who, with German astronomer Johannes Kepler, initiated the scientific revolution that flowered in the work of
English physicist Sir Isaac Newton.
V WORK IN ASTRONOMY During most of his time in Padua, Galileo showed little interest in astronomy, although in 1595 he declared in a letter that he preferred the Copernican theory that Earthrevolves around the Sun to the assumptions of Aristotle and Ptolemy that planets circle a fixed Earth ( see Astronomy: The Copernican Theory ; Ptolemaic System). A Observations with the Telescope In 1609 Galileo heard that a telescope had been invented in Holland. In August of that year he constructed a t...
-
Galileo.
V WORK IN ASTRONOMY During most of his time in Padua, Galileo showed little interest in astronomy, although in 1595 he declared in a letter that he preferred the Copernican theory that Earthrevolves around the Sun to the assumptions of Aristotle and Ptolemy that planets circle a fixed Earth ( see Astronomy: The Copernican Theory ; Ptolemaic System). A Observations with the Telescope In 1609 Galileo heard that a telescope had been invented in Holland. In August of that year he constructed a t...
-
Consciousness
view faces several serious objections. Rival views of introspective consciousness fall into three categories, according to whether they treat introspective access (1) as epistemically looser or less direct than inner perception, (2) as tighter or more direct, or (3) as fundamentally non-epistemic or nonrepresentational. Theories in category (1) explain introspection as always retrospective, or as typically based on self-directed theoretical inferences. Rivals from category (2) maintain that an i...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: John Henry Newman
intolerance of contrary sugges¬tions. If we are certain, we spontaneously reject objections as idle phantoms, however much they may be insisted on by a pertinacious opponent, or present themselves through an obsessiveimagination.I certainly should be very intolerant of such a notion as that I shall one day be Emperor of the French; I shouldthink it too absurd even to be ridiculous, and that I must be mad before I could entertain it. And did a man try topersuade me that treachery, cruelty, or ing...
-
Chinese philosophy
intellectuals themselves, to threaten societal well-being. Harmonious interaction was finally more important to these thinkers than abstract issues of who had arrived at the 'truth' . Perhaps the most obvious illustration of the way the Chinese handled their theoretical conflicts is to be found in mutual accommodation of the three emergent traditions of Chinese culture, Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism. Beginning in the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220), the diverse themes inherited from the comp...
-
Bushi philosophy
(794-1185), they evolved feudal institutions very similar to the feudalism of western Europe in its medieval age. Chief among these institutions was the lord-vassal relationship. Chronicles known as war tales, records of the lives and battles of warriors, depict the intimate personal attachments that bound lords and vassals, telling of vassals prepared to give their lives for their lords at a moment's notice and of lords who bestowed upon vassals the kind of love normally given by fathers to...
-
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Bentham and James Mill
terms of pain, a real entity. Thus a fiction is made clear by its translation into its relation to the real. Ideas are thus clarified by reference to their context—the sentence; whether or not the sentence can be paraphrased into one which contains real terms is the deciding factor with regard to its sense or nonsense. In a sense the substitute sentence provides the possibility of verifying the original by reference to the world of real entities. Thus if the word ‘duty' were used without re...
-
Encyclopedia of Philosophy: THE LAW OF THREE STAGES - COMTE
of the present day still show traces of the two earlier stages. The second is that since the starting point in theeducation of the individual is the same as that of the species, the principal phases of both are the same, andhence, with respect to the more important ideas, each person is a theologian in childhood, a metaphysician in youthand a scientist in adulthood. The third and most important piece of evidence is that in every age human beingshave needed theories with which to connect even...